Docosahexaenoic acid source

Another commercially available product containing naturally occurring marine products is Formulaid , produced by Martek Biosciences as a nutritional supplement for infant formulas. Formulaid contains two fatty acids, arachidonic acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), extracted from a variety of marine microalgae. ARA and DHA are the most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acids found in breast milk, and they are the most important fatty acids used in the development of brain gray matter. They are especially desirable for use in infant formulas because they come from nonmeat sources and can be advertised as vegetarian additives to the product. 

Sources and Intakes of Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid 212... 

SOURCES AND INTAKES OF EICOSAPENTAENOIC ACID AND DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID... 

Either native winterized or concentrated whole-body fish oils or fish liver oils have been utilized in most studies as dietary source of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The physiological effects and possible health benefits of administered fish oils generally have been attributed to either EPA or DHA alone or to a synergistic effect between the two. As a result, there has been controversy over the contribution of individual fish oil constituents to particular pharmacological actions and the optimal dosages required for achieving established and/or suspected beneficial effects. The predominant marine triglyceride-derived m-3-fatty acids are all-cA-5,8,11,14,17-eicosapentaenoic acid (C20 5i3, EPA) and all-ci.v-4,7,10,13,16,19-docosa-hexaenoic acid (C22 6,3, DHA). 

Several methods have been proposed to produce polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) concentrates particularly high in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Most PUFA enrichment methods are based upon a combination of techniques such as saponification, solvent extraction, urea fractionation, molecular distillation, fractionation distillation, liquid chromatography, and super critical carbondioxide extraction. Current evidence suggests that the physiological effects of omega-3 fatty acids are such that the annual world supply of fish oils will be grossly inadequate as a source of these materials, and alternative sources will be needed (Belarbi et al, 2000). 

There are few reports on the inhibitory effect of conjugated polyenes on the growth of cancer cell lines. Begin et al. (1988) reported the toxic effect of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on several kinds of tumor cells other polyunsaturated fatty acids, i.e., arachidonic acid (22 4n-6), a-linolenic acid (18 3n-3), and y-linolenic acid (18 3n-6) have cytotoxic action on several tumor cell lines at concentrations above 50 pM. Further, Tsuzuki et al. (2004) demonstrated that the anticarcinogenic effect of CLN are directly associated with lipid peroxidation. They transplanted human colon cancer cells (DLD-1) into nude mice, and CLA (9c, lit and lOt, 12c-18 2) and CLN (9c, lit, 13t-18 3) were administered to animals. Tumor growth was suppressed by the supplementation of CLA and CLN, and the extent of suppression was CLN >9c, llt-CLA.>10t, 12c-CLA, in that order. Furthermore, DNA fragmentation was enhanced and lipid peroxidation increased in tumor cells of the CLN-fed mouse. Thus this study indicates the possibility of seaweeds as potential sources of anticancer substances. 

Fish oils are a potential source of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Clinical... 

Fish oils are a rich source of 00-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids such as eicosapen-taenoic acid (ERA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The supplementation of Western diets with fish oils containing ERA and DHA has been recommended (68, 69), and it can be beneficial for ischemic heart disease and thromboembolic events. 

Conquer JA, and Holub BJ. (1996). Supplementation with an algae source of docosahexaenoic acid increases (n-3) fatty acid status and alters selected risk factors for heart disease in v etarian subjects. J. Nutrition 126,3032-3039. 

The first synthetic route which may serve as a potential source of phosphatidylcholine-bearing docosahexaenoic acid (85) and tetracosahexanoenoic acid for physiological studies has been described. This method may also be applicable to the synthesis of phosphatidylocholine homologues having longer chains, such as those identified in bovine retina. ... 

Fish is the most important source of the n-3-PUFAs Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and populations consuming fish have lower heart rates. Other important parameters reported were lower blood pressure and higher HDL cholesterol. The strongest evidence for an effect of n-3-fatty acids on disease is the inverse relationship between diet, blood, and tissue levels and coronary heart disease. n-3-PUFAs prevent heart disease by preventing arrhythmias, generating prostanoids and leukotrienes with anti-inflammatory actions, and inhibiting synthesis of cytokines and mitogens that provoke inflammation and promote plaque formation. ... 

Conquer, J.A. and Holub, B.J. (1997) Dietary docosahexaenoic acid as a source of eicosapen-taenoic acid in vegetarians and omnivores. Lipids. 32 341-345. 

Su, H.M., Bernardo, L., Mirmiran, M., Ma, X.H., Corso, T.N., Nathaneilsz, P.W. and Brenna, J.T. (1999) Bioequivalence of dietary alpha-linolenic and docosahexaenoic acids as sources of docosahexaenoate in brain and associated organs in neonatal baboons. Pediatr. Res. 45 87-93. 

Omega-3 PUFAs are essential unsaturated fatty acids obtained from food sources or from supplements. Amongst nutritionally important polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids, a-linolcnic acid (ALA), eicosapentae-noic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are highly concentrated in the brain and have antioxidative stress, anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic effects. The exposure to n-3 fatty acids enhances adult hippocampal neurogenesis associated with cognitive and behavioral processes, promotes synaptic plasticity by increasing longterm potentiation, and modulates synaptic protein expression to stimulate the dendritic arborization and new spine formation [496]. 

One important group of nutrients, rarely included in the Western diet, is the essential fatty acids. These compounds are precursors to prostaglandins, which inhibit testosterone binding in the prostate. They also act as anti-inflammatory agents and restrain protein synthesis and cell growth in the prostate. The omega-3 marine lipids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have been shown to inhibit the growth of prostatic tumors. Flax seed, a rich source of essential fatty acids, has been shown to inhibit cancer metastasis in studies done with mice. 

A double bond within the terminal seven carbon atoms can be present at o>-3 or co-6. y-Linolenic acid is an a>-6 EFA and a-linolenic acid an rw-3 EFA. Other co-3 EFA are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (EX)HA), both abundant in edible fish tissues. Vegetable oils are rich in rw-6 EFA (Table 18-4). Plants contain a-linolenic acid, which can be converted in the body to EPA and DOHA, but it is found within chloroplast membranes and not in seed oils hence, it may not be available in significant quantities in the diet. The a>-3 and o)-6 EFA have different metabolic effects (see below). Particularly rich sources of EPA are fishes (e.g., salmon, mackerel, blue fish, herring, menhaden) that live in deep, cold waters. These fishes have fat in their muscles and their skin. In contrast, codfish, which have a similar habitat, store fat in liver rather than muscle. Thus, cod liver oi I is a good source of EPA, but it also contains high amounts of vitamins A and D, which can be toxic in large quantities (Chapters 38 and 37, respectively). Shellfi.sh also contain EPA. Plankton are the ultimate source of EPA. 

Suzuki H, Manabe S, Wada O, Crawford MA. Rapid incorporation of docosahexaenoic acid from dietary sources into brain microsomal, synaptosomal and mitochondrial membranes in adult mice. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1997 67 272-278. 

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22 6n-3) is the most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) acylated to the aminophospholipids phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylserine (PS) in membranes of neurons within the central nervous system (CNS) (Naughton, 1981 Salem et al., 1986). It can occur in concentrations exceeding 30-mol% of the fatty acids (Salem, 1989). The high enrichment ofDHA in synaptosomes is especially striking and suggests that DHA has unique properties that are required for optimal neuronal function. This concentration in the CNS is even more remarkable when one considers that sources of n-3 fatty acids are disproportionately limited in the terrestrial food chain compared to the much more abundant n-6 fatty acids. 

Jiang, Y., Chen, F., andLi, H.B. 2001. Effects of nitrogen source and vitamin B12 on docosahexaenoic acid production by Crypthecodinium cohnU. In Algae and Their Biotechnological Potential (F. Chen and Y. Jiang, eds), pp. 69 8. Kluwer Academic, The Netherlands. 

Chemicals. a-Linolenic acid, y-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid were purchased from Nu-Chek-Prep (Elysian, MN) (purity > 95%). EPA (purity > 99%) was purchased from Cayman Chemical (Denver, CO). The Silica Gel 60 F254 thin-layer chromatography (TLC) plate was purchased from EM Science (Cherry Hill, NJ). All chemicals were obtained from commercial sources. 

Fig.l. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in forebrain phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) of 18-d-old artificially reared rat pups fed formulae supplemented with DHA and arachidonic acid (AA) from d 5. Main effects of DHA and AA, P < 0.05. Source adapted from Reference 1 7. 

Fig. 3. Effects of dietary supplementation with arachidonic acid (AA 0.5%) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA 1%) on performance in Trial 2 of spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) groups at 60-s and 60-min intertrial intervals (ITI). Data are presented as means + SEM. Both strains performed significantly worse on the 60-min ITI and with the novel stimulus than on the 60-s ITI. There were no significant effects of diet. Source adapted from Reference 37.

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