Casualties

Effects on Combustion Toxicology. There appears to be no documented case of any type of fine retardant contributing to human fine casualties. A survey of data from small-scale combustion or pyrolysis experiments revealed no consistent pattern of decrease or increase in the yields of toxic gases (CO, HCN) when phosphoms flame retardants were present (152,153). 

History. Methods for the fractionation of plasma were developed as a contribution to the U.S. war effort in the 1940s (2). Following pubHcation of a seminal treatise on the physical chemistry of proteins (3), a research group was estabUshed which was subsequendy commissioned to develop a blood volume expander for the treatment of military casualties. Process methods were developed for the preparation of a stable, physiologically acceptable solution of alburnin [103218-45-7] the principal osmotic protein in blood. Eady preparations, derived from equine and bovine plasma, caused allergic reactions when tested in humans and were replaced by products obtained from human plasma (4). Process studies were stiU being carried out in the pilot-plant laboratory at Harvard in December 1941 when the small supply of experimental product was mshed to Hawaii to treat casualties at the U.S. naval base at Pead Harbor. On January 5, 1942 the decision was made to embark on large-scale manufacture at a number of U.S. pharmaceutical plants (4,5). 

Pests and Insecticides. The most destmctive pests of the cotton plant are the boU weevil and the boUworm/budworm complex. They are serious threats to the cotton industry in countries around the world. The boU weevil migrated from Mexico around 1892 and spread over the entire cotton belt within 30 years. The domestic cotton crop lost to the weevil is worth 200 million a year. In addition, about 75 million a year is spent for pesticides to control this destmctive pest (8). Unfortunately, some insecticides used to control the weevil kill many beneficial insects. Among the undesired casualties are insects that help to control the boUworm and the tobacco budworm, pests that cause another 200 million loss in cotton. 

Insurance is protec tion against risk. Commercial insurance companies minimize their own risks by covering a large number of individuals against a given risk and also by offering coverage on a wide variety of different types of risk. It is frequently quite difficult to assess the probability of success of a particular research and development project. It is much easier for an insurance company to assess its probabih-ties from its casualty tables. 

A measure of risk to a group of people. It is most often expressed in terms of the frequency distribution of multiple casualty events... 

Move casualties becoming dizzy or losing consciousness into fresh air and provide artificial respiration if breathing stops. Obtain medical attention (Chapter 13). 

Staff able to deal with the aftermath of casualties. 

Rescue of personnel, where appropriate assessment of whether there are casualties or whether people may be missing and should be searched for. 

Check the mouth for any obstruction. Open the airway by tilting the head back and lifting the chin using the tips of two fingers. If this does not keep the airway open, turn the casualty into tlie recovery position i.e. turn on side and ensure they cannot roll over lift the chain Lie him or her down... 

All eye injuries from chemicals require medical advice. Apply an eye pad and arrange transport to hospital Information to accompany the casualty ... 

Remove the casualty from the danger area after first ensuring your own safety Loosen clothing administer oxygen if available... 

If the casualty is unconscious, place in the recovery position and watch to see if breathing stops... 

If the chemical has been confined to the mouth, give large quantities of water as a mouthwash ensure that the mouthwash is not swallowed If the chemical has been swallowed, small amounts of water may be administered, more if the chemical is corrosive administer a specific antidote if one exists Do not induce vomiting Arrange transport to hospital Information to accompany the casualty ... 

Subsequent movements of casualty (i.e. returned to work, sent home, sent to hospital, etc.). 

In case of accident by inhalation remove casualty to fresh air and keep at rest... 

Quantitative assessment requires historical data which may be suspect for two reasons. There is the possibility that there are latent accidents not in the database. It is possible that past accidents have been rectified and will not recurr. In the absence of data, judgment based on experience and speculation must be used. Notwithstanding this weakness, the quantitative approach was adopted, d he investigating team identified situations that could cause a number of public casualties. R vents limited to the employees or which might cause single off-site casualties were not included in the assessment. 

Typical events that are considered are fire, explosion, ship collision, and the failure of pressurized storage vessels for which historical data established the failure frequencies. Assessment of consequences was based partly on conservative treatment of past experience. For example ilic assessment of the number of casualties from the release of a toxic material was based on past histoiy conditioned by knowledge of the toxicology and the prevailing weather conditions. An altemati. e used fault trees to estimate probabilities and identify the consequences. Credit is taken in this process for preventative measures in design, operation, and maintenance procedures. Historical data provide reliability expected from plant components and humans. 

If LNG were released and cloud ignited the accident would be serious. If the cloud did not ignite on site but drifted to a populated area and then ignited, the number of casualties would be be much greater, Ignition sources are strictly controlled at the terminal so on-site ignition w a.s not considered... 

Table 11.4-1 Frequency/lO,000 Years of Exceeding Maximum Casualties for Existing Facilities ...

Many of the accidents considered in the investigation could occur without causing any significant public casualties. However, if the conditions at the time of the accident were sufficiently unfavorable, the number of deaths among the public could range from tens up to thousands (Table 11.4-1). Table 11.4-1 is the summarized population risk assessed by the study team. It is in frequency per 10,(XX) years of an accident at the indicated facility that causes casualties exceeding the indicated limit. Reference should be made to Canvey (1978) for details. 

On March 26, 1980, a power shovel was relocating a tank containing 1500 I (750 kg 1650 lb) liquid propane. During maneuvering, the tank fell from the shovel a portion of its contents was releas as a result. After a delay of 30 seconds, the ensuing vapor cloud was ignited. The explosion caused substantial blast and fire damage. There were no casualties. 

The explosions tore vessel A off its foundation bolts, and one foot of the vessel tore off a 30 X 30 cm (12 x 12 in.) piece of plate from its side. The release of carbon dioxide through this hole caused the vessel to be thrown into the process laboratory like a rocket, resulting in five casualties. The explosion caused vessel B to be tom loose from its connecting pipes, but without further consequences. 

High numbers of casualties, severe material datnage, and production losses due to fires, explosions, and other accidents in recent years liave motivated all sectors of industry and responsible autliorities to initiate scientific investigations of these deadly phenomena. The ultimate goal of the investigations is to develop safety measures tliat will prevent or limit tlie effects of such accidents. 

A further source of explosion is die engine room. Shipboard explosions may cause casualties and damage in dicmsch cs. They may also cause damage to land-based plants and diercby initiate more severe accidents. ... 

A casualty insurance company has liigli, medium, and low risk policyholders who have probabilities 0.02, 0.01, and 0.0025, respectively, of filing a claim widiin any given year. The proportions of company policy -holders in die du-ee risk groups are O.IO, 0.20 and 0.70. Wliat proportion of claims filed each year come from die low risk group ... 

Zufall, m. chance, accident casualty incident occurrence attack. zuf Uig,a. accidental, incidental, casiial, chance, random. 

The safety priority at the well site must be given to personnel safety. The utmost care must be given to avoid casualties and injuries. The second priority is equipment safety. Breakdowns, fishing, and lost hole must be avoided or at least minimized. 

---