Animal welfare methods

Animal tests were commonly used in the past, also according to the Draize protocol [357,372]. However, such tests have been questioned for several reasons. In addition to the public concern about animal welfare, animal tests are conducted under conditions and at concentrations quite different from those that occur in practice, as in the case of eye irritancy. The effects of surfactants on the skin cannot be compared when the results have been obtained through different protocols and even results obtained by the same method are not comparable if conditions differ. 

In vitro models, at least as screening test, have been with us in toxicology for some 25 years now. The last 10 to 15 years have brought a great upsurge of interest in such models. This increased interest is due to economic and animal welfare pressures and technological improvements (Rowan and Stratmann, 1980 Tyson and Fraizer, 1993 Salem and Baskin, 1993), and has led to the development and (in some cases) successful utilization of numerous new test methods. 

The LLNA is the preferred method when compared to the GPMT because (a) it can equivalently predict human contact dermatitis, (b) a dose-response can be obtained, and (c) it is in line with current animal welfare efforts. Nevertheless, several situations exist where the GPMT is advantageous, depending predominantly on the choice of test substances. The LLNA is known for less powerful detection of the sensitization potential of metallic compounds, high molecular weight proteins, strong irritants, and for substances with low adhesion to the skin surface (skin wettability is a prerequisite for the successful application of LLNA) [136-140],... 

The duties of ECVAM are to coordinate the validation of alternative test methods at the EU level, to act as a focal point for the exchange of information on the development of alternative test methods, to set up, maintain, and manage a database on alternative procedures, and to promote dialogue between legislators, industries, biomedical scientists, consumer organizations, and animal welfare groups, with a view to the development, validation, and international recognition of alternative test methods. 

There are six OECD test guidelines concerning acute toxicity, one of which (TG 401) has now been deleted because of concerns for animal welfare and the number of animals used. Although this test guideline is now deleted, the toxicologist needs to be familiar with the method, as chemicals have been tested according to TG 401 up to the point of deletion. 

The use of the Draize tests has been receiving attention for a number of years because of animal welfare considerations. Consequently, the modifications of the existing protocol and the development of alternative methods have been extensively examined by the cosmetic and chemical industry to reduce animal usage and the occurrence of severe reactions. One modification of this model uses reduced volumes of 0.01 mL and 0.01 g, which reduces severe reactions but does not compromise the predictive value of the test. 

An overview of animal welfare in organic farming by Vonne Lund is presented elsewhere (see Chapter 8). Animal welfare is reduced in conventional intensive housing systems because of high densities and lack of stimuli like straw, and this may lead to behavioural disturbances, injuries or some diseases. Livestock housing on organic farms should allow for the behavioural requirements of different farm animal species, facilitate efficient management, and use environmentally friendly construction materials and methods. 

Several methods of scoring systems are available to assess animal welfare at the farm level. One of these systems, the animal needs index (ANI 35) has got some importance in Austria. Organic farms must achieve a certain minimum level of points to be accepted for organic registration (Bartussek 2003). Roiha (2000) used the same system in 26 Finnish dairy farms. The ANI scores are primarily calculated on the animals environment rather than on animal-based parameters however, many scientists are now arguing for the inclusion of more animal-based parameters for on-farm assessment schemes (e.g. Hegelund et al. 2003, Winckler et al. 2003). 

But science is neither value free nor independent. Values do and should enter into important phases of the research process such as problem identification, design of methods and experiments, model assumptions and the use of normative concepts (Alroe and Kristensen 2002). Some concepts that are widely used in agricultural research are clearly value laden. Obvious examples include sustainability, food quality, soil quality, nature quality, animal welfare, rural development and human wellbeing. Such concepts often have different meanings in different groups, discourses and research disciplines. These conceptual differences influence the kinds of... 

It has become necessary to question the use of in vivo safety evaluation studies in animals because of the pressure from society to reduce the use of live animals in medical research. Consequently, there has been an increase in the exploration and use of various in vitro systems in toxicity testing. The current philosophy is embodied in the concept of the three R s replacement, reduction, and refinement. Thus if possible, live animals should be replaced with alternatives. If this is not possible, then measures should be adopted to reduce the numbers used. Finally, research workers should also refine the methods used to ensure greater animal welfare and reduction in distress and improve the quality of the data derived, if possible. 

IACUC approved protocols. These are recommended by the American Veterinary Medical Association and the protocols are regularly reviewed and revised (http //www.avma.org/issues/ animal welfare/euthanasia.pdf). Currently, a commonly used and IACUC approved euthanasia method is carbon dioxide gas asphyxiation. 

While regulatory authorities monitor research to ensure it is conducted in accordance with relevant laws and universal principles, stakeholders also seek reassurance that companies consider any ethical concerns that emerge. In particular, this is a matter of being respectful of the integrity of people participating in clinical trials, animal welfare, and culturally founded objections to certain types of research. This condition is an obvious motivator for the adoption of alternative methods, such as biosimulation. 

Welfare. Animal welfare considerations are a key aspect in organic production methods. Generally speaking the animal must be allowed free movement, access to the outside and association with members of its own species. Handling and transport of live animals and birds must also consider their welfare. 

Biomedical and toxicological research and safety screening require the use of animals [23], However, since the inception of the first animal welfare organizations, society s use of animals has been a matter of concern and controversy [24], Because of this interest there has been much activity in the past few decades in finding alternative methods for doing research and screening. The... 

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