Airways response

Leukotrienes. Figure 2 Relative airway responses of asthmatic patients to inhaled cysteinyl leukotrines versus histamine. CysLTs have up to 1,000-fold greater potency in causing bronchoconstriction than histamine. Reprinted with permission from (2). 

Hui, P.H., Taylor, I.K., Taylor, G.W., Rubin, P., Kesterton, J., Barnes, N.C. and Barnes, P.J. (1991). Effect of a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor on leukotriene generation and airway responses after allergen challenge in asthmatic patients. Thorax 46, 184-189. 

Malo, J.L., Cartier, A., Pineau, L., Archeveque, J., Ghezzo, H. and Martin, R.R. (1986). Lack of acute effects of ascorbic acid on spirometry and airway responsiveness to histamine in subjects with asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 78, 1153-1158. 

Mohsenin, V., Tremml, P.G., Rothberg, K.G., Souhrada, M. and Douglas, J.S. (1988). Airway responsiveness and prostaglandin generation in scorbutic guinea-pigs. Prost. Leuko. Essen. Fatty Acids. 33, 149-155. 

Sheppard, D., Thompson, J. E., Scypinski, L., Dusser, D., Nadel, J. A. and Borson, B. (1988). Toluene di-isocyanate increases airway responsiveness to substance P and decreases airway neutral endopeptidase. J. Clin. Invest. 81, 1111-1115. 

Shore, S.A. and Drazen, J.M. (1989). Degradative enzymes modulate airway responses to intravenous neurokinins A and B. J. Appl. Physiol. 67, 2504-2511. 

Calignano A, Katona I, Desarnaud F, Giuffrida A, LaRana G, Mackie K, Freund TF, Piomelli D. Bidirectional control of airway responsiveness by endogenous cannabinoids. Nature 2000 408 96-101. 

Bronchial asthma is defined as a chronic inflammatory disease of the lungs it affects an estimated 9 to 12 million individuals in the U.S. Furthermore, its prevalence has been increasing in recent years. Asthma is characterized by reversible airway obstruction (in particular, bronchospasm), airway inflammation, and increased airway responsiveness to a variety of bronchoactive stimuli. Many factors may induce an asthmatic attack, including allergens respiratory infections hyperventilation cold air exercise various drugs and chemicals emotional upset and airborne pollutants (smog, cigarette smoke). 

Tsuyuki, S., Tsuyuki, J., Einsle, K., Kopf, M. and Coyle, A.J. (1997) Co-stimulation through B7-2 (CD86) is required for the induction of a lung mucosal T helper cell 2 (Th2) immune response and altered airway responsiveness. Journal of Experimental Medicine 185, 1671-1679. 

ADRB2) antagonists (salbutamol, formoterol) airway responsiveness to beta-2-adrenergic receptor antagonists in asthmatics (24) in asthmatic (23) and severity of asthma (92)... 

Asthma is characterized by variable symptoms such as wheeze, shortness of breath and coughing and is usually associated with airway inflammation, with variably reduced spirometric indices [4, 5], with increased non-specific airway responsiveness (AR) to spasmogens [6, 7] and increased levels of semm immunoglobulin E (IgE) and eosinophils [8-10]. The symptoms of asthma are primarily due to excessive airway narrowing, which leads to an increased resistance to airflow, especially during forced expiration, and produces characteristic spirometric findings. A cardinal feature of asthma is that airway narrowing is reversible either spontaneously or as the result of therapy. 

Although initial studies suggested a relationship between the Gly 16 polymorphism and increased risk of severe asthma [76] and increased airways responsiveness [77], subsequent associations with asthma, allergy and airways responsiveness have been inconsistent [74, 76-81]. 

Bronchial epithelial cells participate in inflammation by releasing eicosanoids, peptidases, matrix proteins, cytokines, and nitric oxide. Epithelial shedding results in heightened airway responsiveness, altered permeability of the airway mucosa, depletion of epithelial-derived relaxant factors, and loss of enzymes responsible for degrading inflammatory neuropeptides. 

Using animal models, whole body plethysmography has been used to assess both early and late phase airway responses in guinea pigs, rats and mice [2,28-32], However,... 

Lambert, A.L., et al., Transfer of allergic airway responses with serum and lymphocytes from rats sensitized to dust mite, Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., 157, 1991, 1998. 

Sheppard, D. et al., Toluene diisocyanate increases airway responsiveness to substance P and decreases airway neutral endopeptidase, J. Clin Invest, 81, 1111, 1988. 

Gautrin, D. and Lemiere, C., Persistence of airway responsiveness to occupational agents what does it matter , Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin Immunol., 2, 123, 2002. 

Zhang, X.D. et al., Relationship between IgGl levels and airway responses in guinea pigs actively and passively sensitized to hexahydrophthalic anhydride. Allergy, 53, 20, 1998. 

O Byrne PM, Dolovich M, Dirks R, Roberts RS, Newhouse MT (1984) Lung epithelial permeability relation to non-specific airway responsiveness. J Appl Physiol 57 77-84. 

Kotani Y, Nishimura Y, MaedaH, YokoyamaM. (1999) Beta2-Adrenergic receptor polymorphisms affect airway responsiveness to salbutamol in asthmatics. J Asthma. 36, 583-590. 

Gee, J. B. L. (1984). Occupational Lung Diseases. Vol. 2. of Contemporary Issues in Pulmonary Disease. Churchill Livingstone, New York, especially J. Riley, Pulmonary coimective tissue, pp. 1-23 M. R. Becklake and P. Ernst, Asbestos exposure and airway responses, pp. 25-42 J. E. Lockey and M. Moatmed, Health implications of non-asbestos fibers, pp. 43-59. 

Chronic exposure to fumes of heated glacial acetic acid in a canning factory has been associated with a late airway response resulting in chronic inflammation and severe bronchial asthma. Inhalation challenge induced a late asthmatic response, confirming sensitization. ... 

The second syndrome, characterized by rhinitis, asthma, or both, is an immediate-type airway response mediated by IgE antibodies directed against trimellityl-human protein conjugates. A latent period, ranging from weeks to years, is required between the sensitizing exposure and the onset of symptoms, but once sensitization has occurred, symptoms occur almost immediately on reexposure. 

The inflammation in asthmatics also causes an associated increase in airway responsiveness to a variety of stimuli. The structural and inflammatory changes of COPD and asthma are described in detail elsewhere. 

Asthma is considered as a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways. This inflammation causes recurrent episodes of symptoms, variable airflow limitation, and increased airway responsiveness. Prevention of asthma involves both the prevention of the initial development of asthma (= primary prevention) and the prevention of exacerbation in patients with asthma (= secondary prevention). Primary prevention methods include reducing exposure to indoor allergens, particularly domestic mites, avoidance of passive smoking, especially by infants, and avoidance of vehicle emission pollutants, largely from incomplete combustion of petrol by car engines. 

Lee, Lu-Yuan University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky Airway responses mediated by nociceptive afferents National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute... 

Montelukast, zafirlukast Block leukotriene D4 receptors Block airway response to exercise and antigen challenge Prophylaxis of asthma, especially in children and in aspirin-induced asthma Oral duration hours Toxicity Minimal... 

Renzi PM, Olivenstein R, Martin JG (1993) Inflammatory cell populations in the airways and parenchyma after antigen challenge in the rat. Am Rev Resp Dis 147 967-974 Renzi PM, Al-Assaad AS, Yang JP, Yasruel Z, Hamid Q (1996) Cytokine expression in the presence or absence of late airway responses after allergen challenge of sensitised animals. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 15 367-373... 

Oosterhoff Y, de long W, lansen MA, Koeter GH, Postma DS (1993) Airway responsiveness to adenosine 5 -monophosphate in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is determined by smoking. Am Rev Respir Dis 147(3) 553-558... 

Tilley SL, Tsai M, Williams CM, Wang ZS, Erikson CJ, Galli SJ, Roller BH (2003) Identification of A3 receptor- and mast cell-dependent and -independent components of adenosine-mediated airway responsiveness in mice. J Immunol 171(1) 331—337 Toledo-Pereyra LH, Toledo AH, Walsh J, Lopez-Neblina F (2004) Molecular signaling pathways in ischemia/reperfusion. Exp Clin Transplant 2(1) 174-177 Tracey WR, Magee W, Masamune H, Kennedy SP, Knight DR, Buchholz RA, Hill RJ (1997) Selective adenosine A3 receptor stimulation reduces ischemic myocardial injury in the rabbit heart. Cardiovasc Res 33(2) 410-415... 

O Connor, B.J, Lecomte, J.M., Barnes, P.J., 1993. Effect of an inhaled histamine H3-receptor agonist on airway responses to sodium metabisulphite in asthma. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 35, 55-57. 

Derom E, Van DV, V, Marissens S, Engelstatter R, Vincken W, Pauwels R. Effects of inhaled ciclesonide and fluticasone propionate on cortisol secretion and airway responsiveness to adenosine 5 monophosphate in asthmatic patients. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2005 18 328-36. 

Lo-Guidice, J.M., Perini, J.M., Lafitte, J.J., Ducourouble, M.P., Roussel, P., and Lamblin, G., 1995, Characterization of a sulfotransferase from human airways responsible for the 3-O-sulfation of terminal galactose in N-acetyllactosamine-containing mucin carbohydrate chains. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 27544-27550... 

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