Toxicity of antimony

Four species of antimony have been identified in natural waters Sb(III), Sb(V), monomethylstibonic acid, and dimethylstibinic acid (the latter two are due to microbial activity)(De La Calle-Guntinas et al. 1995). In view of the high toxicity of antimony, a very low maximal admissible level of Sb in drinking water is imposed (the EC maximum admissible level of Sb in drinking and surface water is 10 xg/L). As Sb(III) is more toxic than Sb(V) and inorganic species are more toxic than organic ones, a distinction between the different species becomes mandatory. 

Newton PE, Bolte HE, Daly IW, et al Subchronic and chronic inhalation toxicity of antimony trioxide in the rat. Fundam Appl Toxiro/22 561-576, 1994... 

So far nickel has been most successfully controlled by addition of an antimony additive in a process developed by Phil%s Petroleum in the late 1970 s (6). This technology remains a practiced method for nickel control particularly in low to moderate levels, however in recent years the concern over the toxicity of antimony to the environment has reemphasised the need for effective yet benign nickel pas ators. 

The cardiac toxicity of antimony has been explored in cultured myocytes (26,27). Potassium antimony tartrate disrupted calcium handling, leading to a progressive increase in the resting or diastolic internal calcium concentration and eventual cessation of beating activity and cell death. An interaction with thiol homeostasis is also involved. Reduced cellular ATP concentrations paralleled toxicity but appeared to be secondary to other cellular changes initiated by exposure to antimony. 

Winship KA (1987) Toxicity of antimony and its compounds. Adverse Drug Reactions and Acute Poisoning Reviews 2 67-90. 

The toxicity of antimony is a function of the water solubility and the oxidation state of the antimony species under consideration. It can react with red cell membrane and interfere with hemoglobin function. It has high affinity for sulfhydryl groups. 

Lynch BS, Capen CC, Nestman ER, Veenstraa G and Deyo JA (1999) Review of subchronicichronic toxicity of antimony potassium tartrate. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 30 9-17. 

The toxicity of antimony is of low order, much less poisonous than arsenic. The... 

The flame retardant chemicals industry has historically been driven by regulations and standards. The normal fire-, smoke-, and toxicity-related standards have been joined by environmental standards provoked by the alleged environmental impact of halogens and the alleged toxicity of antimony. Although suitable replacements have not been found for these materials in all cases, the environmental concern has served to depress their growth levels from what it would otherwise have been and/or channel the growth into alternative chemical products. 

Antimony is a metalloid and its presence in the environment is increasing owing to extensive anthropogenic utilization. The toxicity of antimony depends on its chemical form, and the main species of interest include Sb(III), Sb(V), mono-methylstibonic acid, and dimethylstibonic acid. Sb has two stable naturally abundant isotopes, Sb and Sb, with natural relative abundances of 57.2 and 42.8%, respectively. 

Fillers may promote char magnesium hydroxide, zinc borate, antimony oxides require high loadings and can degrade mechanical and other properties. Toxicity of antimony-based retardants is a concern. Can be used with other flame retardants synergistically. 

Toxicity. Antimony has been found not to be a carcinogen or to present any undue risk to the environment (9). However, because antimony compounds also contain minor amounts of arsenic which is a poison and a carcinogen, warning labels are placed on all packages of antimony trioxide. 

Health and Safety Aspects. The U.S. EPA has significantly reduced the aHowed levels of antimony compounds in drinking water causing a toxicity cloud over the viabHity of this class of stabilizers. Presently, antimony products are no longer aHowed for use as potable water pipe stabilizers pending completion of NSE International s review (28). Eor these reasons, the future of this stabilizer technology appears limited. 

Praziijuantel. This drug (1), C H24N202, can be used to treat schistosomiasis caused by any one of the three major species. Pra2iquantel is an acylated pyta2ino—isoquinoline derivative that has replaced the traditional (and more toxic) trivalent antimonial compounds. 

Refining operations have two principal wastestreams, waste electrolyte and cathode and anode washwater. Spent electrolyte is normally recycled. A bleed stream is treated to reduce copper and impurity concentration. Varying degrees of treatment are necessary because of the differences in the anode copper. Anode impurities, including nickel, arsenic, and traces of antimony and bismuth, may be present in the effluent if the spent electrolyte bleed stream is discharged. Tables 3.14 and 3.15 present classical and toxic pollutant data for raw wastewater in this subcategory. 

The corrosion of antimony electrodes was also measured using ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) for dissolved antimony in vivo [156], After the electrodes were inserted in the plasma, the antimony concentration showed a linear rise with time at a rate approximately of 94 j,g/L/h (r2 = 0.997). Although the projected antimony concentration is lower than the safe limit, accumulation of dissolved antimony and localized toxic effects in tissue may prevent the antimony electrode from long-term implantable applications. 

In view of the high toxicity of (II), it seemed that the sulphur analogue, dimethylaminosulphonyl fluoride (VI), might be of some interest. We therefore studied the fluorination of dimethylaminosulphonyl chloride. The reaction with potassium fluoride was incomplete, and that with zinc fluoride unsatisfactory, but that with antimony trifluoride using benzene as a solvent proved to be very satisfactory, and an 80 per cent yield of (VI) was obtained. Physiological examination showed that (VI) caused no irritation when small animals were exposed to a concentration of 1 mg./l. for 10 min., and no deaths took place. With the sulphonyl chloride at the same concentration, lacrimation and nasal irritation were caused no deaths were recorded, and all the animals recovered almost immediately on being removed from the chamber. 

An attempt to prepare 1 -bromo-2-fluoroethane by the partial fluorination of ethylene dibromide by means of antimony trifluoride was not very successful. The compound was best prepared by the action of phosphorus tribromide on F.E.A. The compound was relatively non-toxic and the bromine atom rather unreactive, but considerably more reactive than the chlorine atom in chlorofluoroethane. For example, bromofluoroethane was readily converted by means of potassium thiocyanate into 2-fluoroethyl thiocyanate. As a lethal inhalant the toxicity of the thiocyanate was inferior to that of M.F.A. Toxicity by injection, however, appeared to be higher. 

The corrosion rate of Pb02 - often enhanced by mechanical erosion - is relatively high and may be a problem due to the toxicity of lead. Pb02 can be stabilized by modification with, for example, silver, antimony, tin, cobalt oxides (or by alloying of the lead base metal with these metals, respectively) [29]. 

The powder and dust of antimony are toxic and can cause damage to the lungs. The fumes of antimony halogens (chlorides and fluorides) are especially dangerous when inhaled or in contact the skin. 

Antimonials are irritating to the intestinal mucosa and therefore are administered by intramuscular or slow intravenous injection. Peak blood concentrations occur in 2 hours. These drugs bind to cells, including erythrocytes, and are found in high concentrations in the liver and spleen. As compared with the trivalent antimonials, which are no longer used, the pentavalent antimonials bind to tissue less strongly. This results in higher blood levels, more rapid excretion, and lowered toxicity. Pentavalent antimonials are rapidly excreted in the urine, with up to one-half of the administered dose excreted in 24 hours. 

No pentavalent antimonial is licensed for use, but sodium stibogluconate is available from the Parasitic Disease Drug Service of the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) for treatment of leishmaniasis. While the pentavalent antimony compounds can be given intravenously or intramuscularly, local infiltration of the lesion in cutaneous leishmaniasis is highly effective. Because of the lower toxicity of liposomal amphotericin B, this drug is considered a first-line choice for vis-cerotropic leishmaniasis rather than the antimonials. 

Antimony spots are temporary pustular skin eruptions that afflict workers exposed to antimony compounds. Prolonged or acute exposure results in the build up of antimony in the tissues, especially in liver, kidney, adrenals and thyroid. Antimony(III) is considered to be more toxic than antimony(V) because it is relatively slowly excreted. Long term exposures (up to 28 years) have resulted in pneumoconiosis and emphysema, but even after a few months exposure (5-10 mg m-3) to fumes from antimony smelting pathological symptoms were observed, e.g. rhinitis, pharyngitis and tracheitis.174... 

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