Proposed experiments

While many methods for parameter estimation have been proposed, experience has shown some to be more effective than others. Since most phenomenological models are nonlinear in their adjustable parameters, the best estimates of these parameters can be obtained from a formalized method which properly treats the statistical behavior of the errors associated with all experimental observations. For reliable process-design calculations, we require not only estimates of the parameters but also a measure of the errors in the parameters and an indication of the accuracy of the data. 

It IS worth remembering that a theory can never be proven correct It can only be proven incor rect incomplete or inadequate Thus theories are always being tested and refined As important as anything else in the scientific method is the testable hypothesis Once a theory is proposed experiments are designed to test its validity If the results are con sistent with the theory our belief in its soundness is strengthened If the results conflict with it the theory IS flawed and must be modified Section 6 7 describes some observations that support the theory that car bocations are intermediates in the addition of hydro gen halides to alkenes... 

Preliminary Estimates of Repeatability. Initial estimates of repeatabihty should be obtained before embarking on any significant test program. Such information may be available from previous testing if it is not, vaUd preliminary mns should be conducted at different times under supposedly identical conditions. If these mns result in large variabiUty in performance, the important variables that affect the results have not been identified, and further research may be needed before the proposed experiment can commence. 

Potentialities of these methods are illustrated further by the following proposed experiments. 

The students discuss these ideas and propose experiments to verily or falsify one of the presented theories. From a methodical point of view, several approaches from discussions, poster presentations up to actual role-plays are possible. The students have the possibility to choose one of the scientists as an advocate for their preconceptions. Using this technique, it will be easier for the students to express and defend their conception in classroom. 

In a research proposal, however, such details are often omitted. This is true for several reasons. First, a journal article needs sufficient detail to allow others to repeat the work a proposal needs only to convince your readers that you can do the work. Second, proposals typically describe multiple experiments that will culminate in numerous publications. You simply do not have enough space to describe each experiment in detail. Third, you most likely do not yet know the details for many of your proposed experiments, particularly those planned for the distant future hence, it is customary to describe your work in more general terms. Finally, too many details can obscure the underlying purpose of your work. The emphasis should be on the general approach, not the minutiae you do not want to bury your readers in details that may distract them from the importance of your project. 

Many people worry that tests for anxiety using animals are harmful or cruel to the animals tested. Scientists also worry about this. No one enjoys inflicting discomfort or pain on a living creature. On the other hand, it is difficuit to measure something aversive without somehow creating an aversive environment. Scientists try to come up with models that will reproduce the effect they want (in this case, anxiety) with the least amount of disturbance to the animal. In fact, in order to use animals for any scientific experiment, it is necessary to formally apply for permission to a panel of veterinarians and other animal care specialists. This panel reviews the proposed experiment and considers whether it is acceptable. Many times, the panel will insist that an experiment be changed if it causes too much pain or trauma to the animai. In this way, scientists and animai health experts hope to limit the amount discomfort to which any iaboratory animal is subjected. 

Wood Fickett (Ref 5) proposed experiments to test the validity of the CJ theory, not requiring knowledge or assumptions about the nature of the equation of state of the deton products, by making variations of the initial state of the expl. Davis et a I (Ref 6) reported the results of some experiments, by... 

Causal quantum theories have been developed to handle the empirical quantum evidence, and some of these theories, such as de Broglie s theory in its linear approximation, are almost as good as the usual orthodox quantum theory. A relative large number of experiments were even developed to test de Broglie s causal theory and other alternative theories as well, but only a few limited number of these proposed experiments were carried out effectively. And even so they were not carried out thoroughly. As a consequence, the results obtained were not conclusive, and no solid conclusion in favor or against the completeness of the usual orthodox interpretation of the Copenhagen School... 

Fig. 16.15 Illustration of a proposed experiment to investigate the properties of a species-selective membrane.

There will almost invariably be a senior person assigned to be in charge of a chemical laboratory, irrespective of the nature of the work to be done there. However, it must be emphasised that the exercise of care and the adoption of safe working procedures is the responsibility of each and every person in that laboratory. If there is any doubt as to the safety of a proposed experiment, advice should be sought from an experienced person rather than just hoping for the best. 

Chapter 4 covers the site selection and site controlling phase. Consequently, it deals with the assessment of individual production sites based on primarily qualitative criteria. Alternative Multiple Attribute Decision Analysis methods are reviewed and a decision support model employing the Analytic Hierarchy Process, which can be used both for site selection problems and as a controlling tool to perform site portfolio rankings of entire production networks, is proposed. Experiences from application in industry are reported. 

Two experiments ( 11 and 17) require extensive reading of the radiochemical literature, design of a proposed experiment, discussions with the instructor, and presentation to fellow students before the student begins to perform laboratory work. If selected, these experiments should be assigned near the beginning of the semester and evaluated near the end. 

After a new (and unusual) mechanism, such as the benzyne mechanism for nucleophilic aromatic substitution, is proposed, experiments are usually designed to test that mechanism. A classic experiment supporting the benzyne mechanism used a radioactive carbon label. Examination of the mechanism shown in Figure 17.6 shows that the carbon bonded to the leaving chlorine and the carbon ortho to it become equivalent in the benzyne intermediate. Consider what would happen if the carbon bonded to the chlorine were a radioactive isotope of carbon (l4C) rather than the normal isotope of carbon (I2C). If we follow the position of the radioactive carbon label through the mechanism of Figure 17.6, we find that the label should be equally distributed between the carbon attached to the amino group in the product and the carbon ortho to it. 

The starting point for the proposed experiment is a cloud of cold 2S atoms. The numbers for this look favorable, for more than 1010 2S atoms/s have been produced in the experiments at MIT. A measurement of the metastable lifetime sets an upper limit on the electric fields of in the trap of 20 mV/cm. 

The proposed experiment on Is hfs will test the accuracy and verify the validity of the PSI experiment on the excited states. With improved accuracy it may yield a result which can be used as a sum rule for the magnetic form factor of the proton. The uncertainty of this is on the same level as the proton polarizability contribution. 

The expected advantages of the proposed experiment are of three kinds. First, this experiment will operate on isolated atoms, thus avoiding all possible parasitic effects related to macroscopic samples. Second, its sensitivity is expected to be at least comparable and hopefully larger than the one achieved by the best previous experiments reported below. Third, one can perform the experiment with the two natural isotopes of lithium, 6Li and 7Li and comparing these two results will lead to an independent measurement of neutron charge. 

The defect compensation, the square root law, and the low doping efficiency are therefore described by a model of thermal equilibrium bonding configurations. The result is quite surprising because disordered materials cannot usually be described by equilibrium thermodynamics. However, since the model was first proposed, experiments described in the next chapter have confirmed the equilibration of the dopants and defects. 

In the proposed experiment, a film is coated onto a relatively rigid substrate in such a way that the film has a thickness gradient in one direction (Fig. 3a). The film is scribed in a form of a square grid pattern to form an array of individual edge delamination samples on the substrate (Fig. 3b). The cut penetrates some distance into the substrate also. The edges are at 90° to the interface of the film/substrate. The depth (d) and width (w) of the cut are the design parameters that need to be optimized and will be discussed later (Fig. 3c). Due to the existence... 

Example 23.2 Models to Propose Experiments Impedance data obtained for PEM fuel cells often reveal low-frequency inductive loops that have been attributed to parasitic reactions in which the Pt catalyst reacts to form PtO and subsequently forms Pf " ions Suggest experiments that could be used to support or reject this model. 

Example 23.1 Model Identification Example 23.2 Models to Propose Experiments... 

We have chosen 78 Rb among all alkali systems because of its spectroscopic characterics (Fig. 2) [Bacher 1932 Lindgard 1977 Gallagher 1994], In particular, 78 Rb has no hyperfine structure (its nuclear spin is 0) which ensures that the ground level 5s is degenerate this is necessary for the projection scheme as we shall see below. Moreover it has a long enough lifetime (r 17.66 min) for the proposed experiment. 

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