Insecticides toxaphene

After the war Hercules returned to the production of commercial explosives as well as military propellants and continued to build on its cellulose and naval stores capabilities. In 1958 its explosives department created a chemical propulsion division to develop propellants for missiles and space vehicles. In 1959 it received contracts from the U.S. Air Force to develop new solid-fuel rocket motors and subsequently produced the motor for the third stage of the nation s first solid-fuel intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), the Minuteman. Hercules played an even larger role in the development of the Navy s submarine-launched Polaris ICBM. With cellulose came new specialties, including synthetic resins and paper chemicals, as well as carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), an intermediate used in the production of foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. From naval stores came other new specialty chemicals and an effective insecticide, toxaphene, and other agricultural chemicals.3... 

Chlorinated Terpenes. A group of incompletely characterized insecticidal compounds has been produced by the chlorination of the naturally occurring terpenes. Toxaphene [8001-35-2] is prepared by the chlorination of the bicycHc terpene, camphene [79-92-5] to contain 67—69% chlorine and has the empirical formula C QH QClg. The technical product is a yellowish, semicrystalline gum (mp 65—90°C, d 1.64) and is a mixture of 175 polychloro... 

Much controversy has arisen regarding the ability of mixtures of weakly estrogenic compounds to act synergistically, notably the synergistic potential of mixtures of PCBs or of the insecticides dieldrin and toxaphene. " Recent studies suggest that the action of mixtures is at least additive. "... 

Toxaphene zero 0.003 Kidney, liver, or thyroid problems increased risk of cancer Runoff/leaching from insecticide used on cotton and cattle... 

Mental disturbances have been reported after organophosphate exposure. Neuropsychiatric symptoms occurred in two aerial applicators, one of whom used methyl parathion as well as other insecticides. One of these pilots had high levels of exposure to a mixture containing methyl parathion, toxaphene, and Dipterex when his clothing became saturated when the tank of his aircraft accidentally overflowed. Several months after the accident, the subject complained of anxiety, dizziness, emotional lability, and frequent and severe disagreements with family members and associates. Similar observations had been... 

Dieldrin, endrin, gamma HCH (BHC), toxaphene OP and carbamate insecticides... 

The total-chlorine method for determining residues of benzene hexachloride, chlordan, and toxaphene has also been used 55) in experiments where it was known that these insecticides had been applied. With benzene hexachloride, which is known to give off-flavor to some crops, it has not been demonstrated that a relation between organic chlorine values and off-flavor exists. In fact, in most cases where off-flavor was attributed to benzene hexachloride, it has not been possible to detect organically bound chlorine. 

Recently it was shown that when DDT, benzene hexachloride, or toxaphene is fed or applied to cattle, such organic chlorine residue as may be present in the fatty tissues consists essentially of unchanged insecticide. Carter (12) demonstrated their presence by separating the fats and other oxygenated products with sulfuric acid-sodium sulfate mixture and determining total chlorine. In experiments with DDT Schechter (46) demonstrated its presence in fatty tissue and in butterfat by the Schechter-Haller colorimetric method (47). The residues were then tested for toxicity to houseflies in comparison with the known insecticides of the same concentration. In both cases the known insecticide gave the same mortality as the residue. 

In addition to the tests made on peaches and apricots, samples of prunes from trees that had been sprayed with parathion, DDT, DDD, basic lead arsenate, and toxaphene at the rate of from 1 to 2 pounds of these insecticides per 100 gallons of water were tested on larvae of Aedes aegypti. The trees had been sprayed on April 20 and June 16, 1948. The fruit was harvested on or about September 10. Prunes from trees that had been treated with 1 quart of tetraethyl pyrophosphate and 12 pounds of sulfur dust per acre on June 15, and harvested about July 6, were tested on larvae of the above named species. None of the prune samples tested in this study exhibited any significant toxicity to mosquito larvae as compared with the unsprayed check. 

Methoxychlor [1,1,l-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxyphenyl)-ethane], benzene hexachloride (BHC), chlordan, and toxaphene are chlorinated compounds of recognized importance in the insecticide field. Other chlorinated compounds now undergoing-field testing experiments will, no doubt, soon be added to the list. The need for specific analytical methods is familiar to those concerned with the analysis of formulations containing one or more of the above insecticides. 

Determination of organically bound chlorine is shown to be in general agreement with fly mortality tests of insecticide residues in agricultural products. Alfalfa hay that had received applications of toxaphene and beef fat from animals fed alfalfa hay containing toxaphene residues or sprayed with benzene hexa-chloride or DDT were used for tests. 

Colorimetric methods (3, 6-10), some of which are specific, have been developed for the determination of DDT in small amounts. For benzene hexachloride (hexachloro-cyclohexane), chlordan, and toxaphene, however, specific analytical methods have not been developed, and their residues have been evaluated by the determination of organically bound chlorine. The procedure comprises extraction of the insecticide residue from the sample with benzene or other suitable organic solvent, evaporation of the solvent, treatment of the residue with isopropyl alcohol and metallic sodium, and finally determination by standard methods of the amount of chloride ion formed. 

As Muller had prophesied and indeed hoped, DDT stimulated the discovery of more synthetic insecticides. DDT relatives included chlordane, toxaphene, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and heptachlor. Popular substitutes for DDT s family included organophosphates such as parathion, which is a powerful neurotoxin, and carbamates, which are also highly toxic to people. Unlike DDT, parathion and aldicarb have killed and injured many farm workers. Malathion was later developed to be several hundred times less toxic than parathion. 

Wilson and co-workers [332, 333] have discussed the determination of aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, lindane, o,p and p,p isomers of DDT and its metabolites, mirex, and toxaphene in seawater and molluscs. The US environmental Protection Agency has also published methods for organochlo-rine pesticides in water and wastewater. The Food and Drug Administration (USA) [334] has conducted a collaborative study of a method for multiple organochlorine insecticides in fish. Earlier work by Wilson et al. [333, 335] in 1968 indicated that organochlorine pesticides were not stable in seawater. 

Technical chlordane is a mixture of chlorinated hydrocarbons that has been used as an insecticide since its introduction in 1947. Chlordane was the first cyclodiene insecticide to be used in agriculture and was the second most important organochlorine insecticide in the United States in 1976/1977, behind toxaphene, with an estimated annual production of 9 million kg (Nomeir and Hajjar 1987). Chlordane is a leading insecticide in controlling termites, with about 1.2 million homes in the United States alone treated annually for this purpose (Nomeir and Hajjar 1987). 

Brown, T.M., D.R. Johnson, A.R. Hopkins, J.A. Durant, and D.C. Montefiori. 1982. Interactions of pyrethroid insecticides and toxaphene in cotton. Jour. Agricul. Food Chem. 30 542-545. 

Toxaphene (chlorinated camphene, 67 to 69% chlorine) is a broad-spectrum insecticide, which was formerly one of the most heavily used agricultural chemicals on a global scale, especially... 

Bidleman, T.F. and C.E. Olney. 1975. Long range transport of toxaphene insecticide in the atmosphere of the Western North Atlantic. Nature (London) 257(5526) 475-477. 

There are no effective boundaries when it comes to pollutants. Studies have shown that toxic insecticides that have been banned in many countries are riding the wind from countries where they remain legal. Compounds such as DDT and toxaphene have been found in remote places like the Yukon and other Arctic regions. 

The insecticides and miticides mentioned are not the only ones known to be effective against cotton pests, but they include most of those used for that purpose in the United States. Many of them are imported in considerable quantities into Latin American countries and have proved their effectiveness there. Approximately 44,000,000 pounds of technical organic insecticides (DDT, BHC, toxaphene, aldrin, dieldrin, parathion, etc.), 3,600,000 pounds of calcium arsenate, and 82,000 pounds of nicotine sulfate were exported from the United States to these countries during 1953. Some insecticides are exported from Europe, particularly Folidol (methyl parathion) from Germany. Even though these imports represent considerable quantities of insecticides, they are still far short of the minimum needs for adequate cotton-pest control. 

In general, the control of insect pests of cacao has been neglected. Also, little is known regarding the effect of insecticides on cacao. Cardona (9) in Colombia has studied the influence of some insecticides on the pollination and fruit setting. He used various preparations of BHC Agrocide, chlordan, DDT, dieldrin, dieldrex, methoxychlor [l,l,l-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-methoxyphenyl) ethane], and toxaphene. 

Most of the well-known chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides will kill horseflies and the percentages required are small. But none of them will protect livestock adequately from horseflies, as the bites are made and the damage done before these relatively slow acting materials take effect. Probably most horseflies attacking an animal sprayed with DDT, lindane, chlordan, or toxaphene (chlorinated camphene) would eventually die, but the fly reduction thereby made in an area would be insignificant unless all hosts both wild and domestic were treated frequently. 

---