Examples rapeseed

For example, rapeseed oil methyl ester has a cold filter plugging point of -14°C. The cold filter plugging point is a standardized test method (27,28). 

Flavour reversion is characteristic of soybean oil, and sometimes also occurs in other oils containing Knolenic acid, for example rapeseed oil. It manifests itself when the oil still contains fairly low amounts of fatty acid hydroperoxides. Smells resembling grass and beans are due to flavour reversion, and are caused by different compounds resulting from the decomposition of hydroperoxides, including various derivatives of furan. Oil, in which this defect is apparent, can have this smell removed during refining, but the defect re-appears after a certain amount of time (hence the name... 

Biorefineries can be considered to belong to three types. Type 1 biorefineries focus on the conversion of one feedstock, using one process and targeting one product. A biodiesel production plant would be a good example rapeseed or sunflower is used for oil extraction, which is subsequently transesterified to produce fatty acid methyl esters or biodiesel using methanol and a catalyst. 

Over several decades, oil crop breeding has resulted In major Improvements (11, 12). As an example, rapeseed was developed Into a new crop low In eru-clc acid and glucoslnolates - undesirable components for the use of this oil In foods. A more recent example Is the development of sunflower oil with an oleic acid content exceeding 80%. 

Fats and oils may be synthesized in enantiomerically pure forms in the laboratory (30) or derived from vegetable sources (mainly from nuts, beans, and seeds), animal depot fats, fish, or marine mammals. Oils obtained from other sources differ markedly in their fatty acid distribution. Table 2 shows compositions for a wide variety of oils. One variation in composition is the chain length of the fatty acid. Butterfat, for example, has a fairly high concentration of short- and medium-chain saturated fatty acids. Oils derived from cuphea are also a rich source of capric acid which is considered to be medium in chain length (32). Palm kernel and coconut oils are known as lauric oils because of their high content of C-12 saturated fatty acid (lauric acid). Rapeseed oil, on the other hand, has a fairly high concentration of long-chain (C-20 and C-22) fatty acids. 

Fatty acids, both saturated and unsaturated, have found a variety of applications. Brassilic acid (1,11-un-decanedicarboxylic acid [BA]), an important monomer used in many polymer applications, is prepared from erucic acid (Scheme 2), obtained from rapeseed and crambe abyssinica oils by ozonolysis and oxidative cleavage [127]. For example, an oligomer of BA with 1,3-butane diol-lauric acid system is an effective plasticizer for polyvinylchloride. Polyester-based polyurethane elastomers are prepared from BA by condensing with ethylene glycol-propylene glycol. Polyamides based on BA are known to impart moisture resistance. 

By way of a specific example let us consider erucic acid. The main commercial source of erucic acid is a specially bred form of rape seed (HEAR) as pointed out above. With European consumption being around 60 000 tpa almost 40 000 ha of land are used to grow rapeseed for erucic acid production in Europe. The high level of erucic found in this type of rape seed oil make it unsuitable for human consumption, owing to the indigestibility of such large amounts of this acid. Erucic acid is also the major fatty acid to be found in nasturtium and crambe seeds (up to 75% and 56% respectively), and it is also found in the salad herb, rocket. 

The methods developed using organic solvents are typically designed to maximize the use of crop plants. For example, in the case of the synthesis of PHA in seeds of oil crops, such as rapeseed or soybean, the extraction methods have the advantage that the oil can be recovered from the seeds as well as PHA, and that the residual meal can be used in animal feed (Fig. 5) [74-78]. In this process, the seeds containing oil and PHA are crushed and the oil is obtained with a... 

The plant of choice which can be used for PHA production will be influenced by a number of factors. Of prime importance is cost, i. e., in which crop will PHA production be cheapest. The answer to this question is likely to be different depending on the agricultural economics of each country. For example, if one considers oilseed crops, rapeseed may be the best crop for Northern European countries and Canada, sunflower for Southern European countries, and soybean for the USA. Other important factors which may influence the choice of target plant are the nature of the metabolic pathway that needs to modified for synthesis of a particular PHA, the procedure used for PHA purification, and the other uses of the crop besides PHA production. 

Crops producing carbohydrates are typically more productive than oil crops. For example, whereas rapeseed and oil palm produce 1000 and 6000 kg of oil per hectare, respectively, sugar beet produces 9000 kg of sucrose per hectare and potato gives 19,000 kg of starch per hectare [84]. In this context, carbohy-... 

Only a few specific kinds of lipids can be identified on the basis of the characteristic features of the FA profile and the presence of specific biomarkers. For example, oils obtained from the seeds of Brassicaceae, such as rapeseed oil, are characterized by abundant amounts of uncommon FA such as gondoic (Z-11 -eicosenoic) acid and erucic (Z-13-docosenoic) acid and, after ageing their oxidation products. Other examples are reported in Table 7.2 and in Chapter 1. 

Cereals can yield around 1500-3000 litres of gasoline equivalent (lge)/ha sugarcane, 3000-6000 lge/ha sugarheet, 2000-4000 lge/ha vegetable oil crops, 700-1300 litres of diesel equivalent (lde)/ha and palm oil, 2500-3000 lde/ha (IEA, 2007). In addition, there are novel biofuel production processes under development, for example biodiesel from marine algae, which are claimed to have a 15 times higher yield per ha than rapeseed. 

For unknown solute properties, a derivation from the association laws is used to adjust experimental results Chrastil has published the most popular one [6], An example is given in Fig. 6.6-6, comparing measured and calculated equilibrium data for rapeseed oil in C02, showing the dominating influence of the solvent density. This equation is very useful for describing the equilibrium distribution of natural substances in dense gases. 

The concentrations at the catalyst surface (both hydrogen and substrate) can be controlled independently of other process conditions. The unique feature is that very high concentrations of hydrogen can be achieved this leads, for example, to the suppression of trans-fatty acids in partial hydrogenation of methylated rapeseed oil [29]. 

A remarkable feature of lipids, either vegetal or animal, is that they share the same fatty acids in triglycerides in the range C12-C20 (Table 14.3). However, there are significant differences in composition. Thus, soybean, sunflower and rapeseed oils are all based on C18 acids, the first two being richer in unsaturated linoleic acid, which could introduce a problem of stability with respect to oxidation. The palm oil has an important amount of C16 acid. Coconut oil is given as an example of Cl2-04 rich oil. As in palm oil the composition of tallow spreads over Cl6-08 acids. 

For example, CN is approximately 54 for methyl rapeseed ester, 50 for methyl palm ester, but only 46 for methyl soybean and sunflower esters. 

As a simulation example we treat the production of biodiesel from rapeseed in a plant capacity of 200 ktonne per year. The feedstock has a high content of oleic acid triglyceride, around 65%, such that the kinetic data from Section 14.6 can be used for sketching the design of the reaction section. For simplification, we consider that the oil was pretreated for removing impurities and gums, as well as FFA by esterification over solid catalyst. The free fatty acids and water content in oil feed should be less than 0.5%w. NaOH and KOH in 0.5 to 1.5% w/w are used as catalysts. 

The most abundant fatty acids in vegetable oils and fats are palmitic acid (hexa-decanoic acid or 16 0), oleic acid ([9Z]-octadec-9-enoic acid or 18 1 cis-9), and lino-leic acid (cis, cis-9,12-octadccadicnoic acid or 18 2 cis-9 cis-12) [21], Other fatty acids are found in special oils (e.g. 80% 87% ricinoleic acid in castor oil) [23], but these oils are quite rare. Castor oil, for example, has a production rate of 610,000 tons/year compared to the top four palm oil (46 million tons/year), soya oil (40 million tons/year), rapeseed oil (24 million tons/year), and sunflower oil (12 million tons/ year) [24]. Further sources of fatty acids are tall oils (2 million tons/year) [25] and to a lesser degree synthetic fatty acids derived by mainly hydroformylation and hy-drocarboxylation of olefins [23], The summed fatty acid production is estimated to be 8 million tons/year (2006) [23],... 

---