Between Pure and Applied Chemistry

Traditional historiography stresses the limited interactions between French industry and academia, and suggests that many industrialists came only late to understand the importance of such cooperation. In some respects the society s history confirms this assertion, but it also contradicts it in other ways. Although the Societe chimique was dominated by the academic wing, the society s leaders did seek support from manufacturers and businessman, whose financial 

A new membership category was created for sponsors, referred to as membres donateurs, whose names were published annually at the top of the membership list. A second subscription was organized in 1894 under the presidency of the industrialist Scheurer-Kestner Oikewise a former Wurtz student), when the society almost faced bankruptcy. During the 1880s and 1890s the Societe was able to collect a total of around 180 000 francs.  

---

In order to assess the respective values of theory, experiment, and practice in mid-eighteenth-century French chemistry courses, it is wise to avoid using the conventional view of experiment as an illustration or proof of a theoretical point that later came to prevail in the pedagogy of experimental science. Similarly, it would be inappropriate to frame practical aspects in terms of applied theory since the division between pure and applied chemistry was far from stabilized in the mid-eighteenth century.40... 

This paper analyses the establishment and early history of the Danish Chemical Society with particular focus on the relationship between the different groups of members. Furthermore, it will discuss how the definition of a chemist in Denmark in the analysed period was influenced by the structure of the Danish Chemical Society and how this affected the balance between pure and applied chemistry, and between the producers and applieants of chemieal knowledge. But before further introduction of the chemieal society, it is necessary to provide some background information on the Danish chemical community around 1880. 

Professional Stratification and the Equilibrium between Pure and Applied Chemistry... 

For the distinction between pure and applied chemistry in the second half of the eighteenth century, see also Meinel [1983], and [1985],... 

As a general rule, adsorbates above their critical temperatures do not give multilayer type isotherms. In such a situation, a porous absorbent behaves like any other, unless the pores are of molecular size, and at this point the distinction between adsorption and absorption dims. Below the critical temperature, multilayer formation is possible and capillary condensation can occur. These two aspects of the behavior of porous solids are discussed briefly in this section. Some lUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) recommendations for the characterization of porous solids are given in Ref. 178. 

The data refer to various temperatures between 18 and 25°C, and were compiled from values cited by Bjerrum, Schwarzenbach, and Sillen, Stability Constants of Metal Complexes, part II, Chemical Society, London, 1958, and values taken from publications of the lUPAC Solubility Data Project Solubility Data Series, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1979-1992 H. L. Clever, and F. J. Johnston, J. Phys. Chem. Ref Data, 9 751 (1980) Y. Marcus, Ibid. 9 1307 (1980) H. L. Clever, S. A. Johnson, and M. E. Derrick, Ibid. 14 631 (1985), and 21 941 (1992). 

The pore systems of solids are of many different kinds. The individual pores may vary greatly both in size and in shape within a given solid, and between one solid and another. A feature of especial interest for many purposes is the width w of the pores, e.g. the diameter of a cylindrical pore, or the distance between the sides of a slit-shaped pore. A convenient classification of pores according to their average width originally proposed by Dubinin and now officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry is summarized in Table 1.4. 

A comparahve analysis of coefficients and descriptors clarifies the relationship between lipophilicity and hydrophobicity (Y in Eq. 4 is the molar volume which assesses the solute s capacity to elicit nonpolar interactions (i.e. hydrophobic forces) which, as also clearly stated in the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry definitions [3] are not synonyms but, when only neutral species are concerned, may be considered as interchangeable. In the majority of partitioning systems, the lipophilicity is chiefly due to the hydrophobicity, as is clearly indicated by the finding that the product of numerical values of the descriptors V and of the coefficient v is larger in absolute value than the corresponding product of other couples of descriptors/coefficients [9]. This explains the very common linear rela-... 

Several terms have been used to define LOD and LOQ. Before we proceed to develop a uniform definition, it would be useful to define each of these terms. The most commonly used terms are limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ). The 1975 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (lUPAC) definition for LQD can be stated as, A number expressed in units of concentration (or amount) that describes the lowest concentration level (or amount) of the element that an analyst can determine to be statistically different from an analytical blank 1 This term, although appearing to be straightforward, is overly simplified. If leaves several questions unanswered, such as, what does the term statistically different mean, and what factors has the analyst considered in defining the blank Leaving these to the analyst s discretion may result in values varying between analysts to such an extent that the numbers would be meaningless for comparison purposes. 

One way of dealing with the Berlin Philosophical Faculty s point of view was to develop a distinction between "pure" and "applied" science so as to distinguish general chemistry from its particular uses in pharmacy, agriculture, manufactures, brewing, and wine making. This distinction allowed chemists to teach as academicians in the philosophical tradition but to continue to advise municipal committees on sanitation measures and perform assays for local industries. 

So G, Karotki A, Verma S, Pritzker K, Wilson B, Chiang LY (2006) Comparison of singlet oxygen generation efficiency between water-soluble C60-diphenylaminofluorene conjugates and molecular micelle-like FC4S. Journal of Macromolecular Science Part A-Pure and Applied Chemistry 43 1955-1963. 

SOLUTION and MIXTURE - There is some confusion between these two terms in geological literature. According to the I.U.P. A.C. (International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry), the term mixture must be adopted whenever all components are treated in the same manner , whereas solution is reserved for cases in which it is necessary to distinguish a solute from a solvent. This distinction in terminology will be more evident after the introduction of the concept of standard state. It is nevertheless already evident that we cannot treat an aqueous solution of NaCl as a mixture, because the solute (NaCl) in its stable (crystalline) state has a completely different aggregation state from that of the solvent (H2O) and, because NaCl is a strong electrolyte (see section 8.2), we cannot even imagine pure aqueous NaCl. 

In 1886, Henri Moissan achieved the isolation of elemental fluorine, and this discovery was awarded twenty years later by the Nobel Prize (1906). At the time of this discovery, Moissan was working in a place that was not geared toward this kind of research the Faculty of Pharmacy in Paris. These studies were certainly not oriented toward potential commercial products, and Moissan could not imagine the important applications that took place one century later in the field of pharmaceuticals. Indeed, pharmacy and more generally life sciences have become major fields in fluorine chemistry. This story is instructive in the current debate between pure and applied research. 

Similar qualitative relationships between reaction mechanism and the stability of the putative reactive intermediates have been observed for a variety of organic reactions, including alkene-forming elimination reactions, and nucleophilic substitution at vinylic" and at carbonyl carbon. The nomenclature for reaction mechanisms has evolved through the years and we will adopt the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (lUPAC) nomenclature and refer to stepwise substitution (SnI) as Dn + An (Scheme 2.1 A) and concerted bimolecular substitution (Sn2) as AnDn (Scheme 2.IB), except when we want to emphasize that the distinction in reaction mechanism is based solely upon the experimentally determined kinetic order of the reaction with respect to the nucleophile. 

Simple binary and ternary compounds can be named by using a few simple rules, but systematic rules are required to name the millions of organic compounds that exist. Rules for naming compounds have been established by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). The IUPAC name stands for a compound that identifies its atoms, functional groups, and basic structure. Because of the complexity of organic compounds, thousands of rules are needed to name the millions of compounds that exist and the hundreds that are produced daily. The original intent of the IUPAC rules was to establish a unique name for each compound, but because of their use in different contexts and different practices between disciplines, more than one name may describe a compound. IUPAC rules result in preferred IUPAC names, but general IUPAC names are also accepted. 

The nomenclature (qv) of polyamides is fraught with a variety of systematic, semisystematic, and common naming systems used variously by different sources. In North America the common practice is to call type AB or type AABB polyamides nylon-x or nylon-x,x, respectively, where x refers to the number of carbon atoms between the amide nitrogens. For type AABB polyamides, the number of carbon atoms in the diamine is indicated first, followed by the number of carbon atoms in the diacid. For example, the polyamide formed from 6-aminohexanoic acid [60-32-2] is named nylon-6 [25038-54-4] that formed from 1,6-hexanediamine [124-09-4] or hexamethylenediamine and dodecanedioic acid [693-23-2] is called nylon-6,12 [24936-74-1]. In Europe, the common practice is to use the designation "polyamide," often abbreviated PA, instead of "nylon" in the name. Thus, the two examples above become PA-6 and PA-6,12, respectively. PA is the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) accepted abbreviation for polyamides. 

The principal advances in the systematization of organic nomenclature have come from the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) Commission on the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry, and from the Chemical Abstracts Service. The IUPAC Definitive Rules for Hydrocarbons and Heterocyclic Systems (1957)4 and for Characteristic Groups (1965)5 have been widely accepted by the chemical community, and, in their latest revised form,6 constitute the standard reference work. These rules are closely related to those developed in parallel by Chemical Abstracts for indexing purposes, and it is fortunate that, as a result of close cooperation between the two bodies, there are few areas of disagreement. 

The terms selectivity and specificity are often used interchangeably. A detailed discussion of these terms as defined by different organizations has been made by Vessmann [24], He particularly pointed out the difference between specificity as defined by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, the Western European Laboratory Accreditation Conference (IUPAC/WELAC), and ICH. 

The ICO has been an Associated Organization of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry since 1970 and an Interest Group of the International Union of Biochemistry since 1982. The plenary lectures of the Carbohydrate Symposia between 1972 and 1998 were printed in Pure and Applied Chemistry. 

Silica is one of the most abundant chemical substances on earth. It can be both crystalline or amorphous. The crystalline forms of silica are quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite [51,52]. The amorphous forms, which are normally porous [149] are precipitated silica, silica gel, colloidal silica sols, and pyrogenic silica [150-156], According to the definition of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), porous materials can be classified as follows microporous materials are those with pore diameters from 3 to 20 A mesoporous materials are those that have pore diameters between 20 and 500 A and macroporous materials are those with pores bigger than 500 A [149],... 

The adsorbents normally applied are in general porous. The classification of the different pore widths of porous adsorbents was carried out by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) [1], IUPAC classified these materials as microporous, with pore diameters between 0.3 and 2nm, mesoporous with pore diameters between 2 and 50nm, and macroporous with pore diameters greater than 50 nm [1], The pore width, Dp, is defined as equal to the diameter in the case of cylindricalshaped pores, and as the distance between opposite walls in the case of slit-shaped pores. 

In this, the concluding chapter of our journey through the history of chemistry, we shall look at topics where chemical methods or ideas have proved useful, but not worry further about drawing a line around the science. Nor shall we worry about drawing a line between pure and applied science. Many industries employ chemists to do pure research, in the reasonable expectation that some of it will prove useful. Most chemists are employed in applied science that is the aspect of chemistry that has had the greatest effect on our environment and on us. In the past one hundred and fifty years, chemical synthesis has become ever more powerful, and it is fair to say that chemistry is the only science that now builds or creates much of what it goes on to study, from artificial elements to the latest plastics and the most powerful pharmaceutical chemicals, from fertilizers to microchips. Chemists have been enormously successful in their explorations, and the results of their work have transformed the world in which we live and work. 

The ability to perform the same analytical measurements to provide precise and accurate results is critical in analytical chemistry. The quality of the data can be determined by calculating the precision and accuracy of the data. Various bodies have attempted to define precision. One commonly cited definition is from the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which defines precision as relating to the variations between variates, i.e., the scatter between variates. [l] Accuracy can be defined as the ability of the measured results to match the true value for the data. From this point of view, the standard deviation is a measure of precision and the mean is a measure of the accuracy of the collected data. In an ideal situation, the data would have both high accuracy and precision (i.e., very close to the true value and with a very small spread). The four common scenarios that relate to accuracy and precision are illustrated in Figure 2.1. In many cases, it is not possible to obtain high precision and accuracy simultaneously, so common practice is to be more concerned with the precision of the data rather than the accuracy. Accuracy, or the lack of it, can be compensated in other ways, for example by using aliquots of a reference material, but low precision cannot be corrected once the data has been collected. 

Nomenclature follows the recommendations of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) (B-79MI43800). For the description of fused heterocycles, two methods may be used, the fusion method (IUPAC Rule B-3) and the replacement nomenclature (IUPAC Rule B-4). In this chapter, the latter is used because it shows more clearly the relationship between the various structures under consideration. 

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommends the use of liquid-liquid distribution rather than the traditional term, solvent extraction. However, solvent extraction is still used commonly in the literature, and that is why it is also being used here interchangeably (Chapter 7). Solvent extraction utilizes the partition of a solute between two practically immiscible liquid phases—one a solvent phase and the other an aqueous phase. Liquid-liquid partitioning methods are important separation tools in modern biotechnology. They have become increasingly popular as part of a... 

---