Behavior in infants

Clinical experience with the infants exposed primarily to PCP pre-natally is remarkably close to Wilson et al. These neonates are difficult to console, have alternating periods of lethargy and irritability, and are unable to control the tremors of their extremities when unswaddled. Vasomotor instability, diarrhea, and voracious sucking movements are infrequently seen in the PCP-exposed infants who were followed. Chasnoff et al. (1983) compared these behaviors in infants exposed prenatally to PCP to those of adults who have acute intoxication. 

Kahn NH, Shelton SJ Defensive behaviors in infant rhesus monkeys environmental cues and neurochemical regulation. Science 243 1718-1721, 1989 Kahnowsky LB, Kennedy F Observations in electric shock therapy apphed to problems of epilepsy. J Nerv Ment Dis 98 56-67, 1943 Kampen D, Sherwin B Estrogen use and verbal memory in healthy postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 83 979-983, 1994 Kane JM, Quitkin FM, Rifkin A, et al Lithium carbonate and imipramine in the prophylaxis of unipolar and bipolar 11 illness a prospective placebo-controlled comparison. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39 1065-1069, 1982 Kaneno S, Komatsu H, Fukamauchi F, et al Biochemical basis of antidepressant-effect of low dose of sulpiride. Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology 45 131-132, 1991... 

Gregory, E. H., and Pfaff, D. W., 1971, Development of olfactory-guided behavior in infant rats. Physiol. Behav., 6 573. 

The long-term effects of topiramate on adaptive behavior in infants with epilepsy were assessed [161 ]. A clinically significant decline in scores on the Vineland Scales of Adaptive Behavior occurred in infants treated with topiramate. Of note, however, Vineland scores were below average at pretreatment baseline in these patients. Anorexia was noted in 35% of patients and somnolence in 27%. 

A seizure is an abnormal behavioral (often motoric) activity caused by abnormal electrical activity of the brain. Seizures can be the symptom of a chronic neurological malfunction, i.e. epilepsy, or can appear as single events, e.g. during fever in infants. 

A further area of concern is the infants personal-social development. During the latter half of the first year, we noted seemingly appropriate eye contact with their primary caretakers as well as joyful expressions. However, during the first half of the second year, the primary caretakers expressed concern about the infants emerging interactive and affective behaviors. These infants seem more prone to oppositional behavior demonstrated by temper tantrums, and less enjoyment of social interaction with the adults in their environment. 

Animal studies indicate that nutritional deficiencies in a number of essential elements (e.g., calcium, iron, zinc, copper, phosphorus) may impact the toxicokinetic and toxicological behavior of lead (ATSDR 1993 Chaney et al. 1989). In infants and children, lead retention has been shown to be inversely correlated with calcium intake (Johnson and Tenuta 1979 Sorrell et al. 1977 Ziegler et al. 1978). Zinc has been shown to have a protective effect against lead toxicity in a number of animal species (Goyer 1986 Haeger-Aronsen et al. 1976 Brewer et al. 1985 Cerklewski and Forbes 1976). 

In humans, studies of hormone and behavior interactions affecting maternal behavior have been limited to correlations between endogenous hormones and a variety of behavioral events normally associated with childbirth. Individual differences, of largely unknown origins, have a major impact on human parental behavior. In addition, child rearing experience is a powerful positive determinant of maternal responsivity, and the social environment, including the presence of supportive companions, can affect subsequent mother-infant interactions (Sosa, et al., 1980). 

Johanson, I. B. and Shapiro, E. G. (1986). Intake and behavioral responsiveness to taste stimuli in infant rats from 1 to 15 days of age. Developmental Psychobiology 19, 593-606. 

Smith, G. J. and Spear, N. E. (1978). Effects of the home environment on withholding behaviors and conditioning in infant and neonatal rats. Science 202,327-329. 

Waldrop, M.R and Halverson, C.F.J. (1971) Minor physical anomalies and hyperactive behavior in young children. In Hellumuth, J. ed. Exceptional Infant Studies of Abnormalities, Vol II. New York, Brunner/Mazel, pp. 343-380. 

The personal cost of dependence on prescription sedative-hypnotics is high. Aside from the short- or longterm health effects, physical or psychological dependence may lead to family discord, job loss, birth defects in infants born to addicted mothers, and even criminal behavior and incarceration in individuals who purchase these drugs illicitly. 

The effects of PCBs alone on reproduction and development, as well as their carcinogenic effects, have yet to be established in humans—whether workers or the general population—even though some subjects have been exposed to very high levels of PCBs. Some adverse behavioral effects in infants are reported to have been observed in two studies involving subjects from the general population, but the adverse effects observed in the two studies were dissimilar furthermore, there are a number of uncertainties about the exposure assessments in both studies (Kimbrough, 1995). 

There have been two studies of the neurodevelopmen-tal effects of cocaine during the first 48 hours of life. In the first, 23 cocaine-exposed and 29 non-exposed infants were prospectively assessed within the first 48 hours of life infant meconium was used to detect cocaine and the BNBA Scale was used for clinical assessment (278). One-third of the cocaine-exposed neonates were bom to women who denied cocaine use. In six of the seven clusters assessed, cocaine-exposed infants fared badly compared with control infants. The cocaine-exposed infants had poor autonomic stability and there was a dose-response relation between meconium cocaine concentration and poor performance in relation to orientation and so-called regulation of state, which refers to how the infant responds when aroused. The authors concluded that cocaine exposure is independently related to poor behavioral performance in areas that are central to optimal infant development. They emphasized the value of the identification and quantification of cocaine in infants. 

The effects of low concentrations of epidural bupivacaine on the developing neonatal brain has been studied in infant rhesus monkeys, to decide if there was a detrimental relation between perinatal analgesia with epidural bupivacaine and later infant development (160). The monkeys, whose mothers had been given epidurals at term (but not during labor) were subjected to a battery of neurobehavioral tests for 1 year. The authors concluded that epidural bupivacaine did not cause neonatal abnormalities or specific cognitive defects, but that it may delay the normal course of behavioral development. It is difficult to extrapolate the results of this small study to human obstetrics. 

In large doses, atropine induces stimulation of the CNS, which in humans is characterized by overactive coordinated movements, hallucinations, and delirium. After the stimulation has lasted for some time, depression sets in and may proceed to complete paralysis of the CNS, which is fatal through cessation of respiration. In infants, particularly those ingesting antihistamines, paradoxical excitement may occur subsequently followed by a more characteristic CNS depression. CNS manifestations may resemble acute psychosis characterized by incoherence, confusion, hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, and abnormal motor behavior. 

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) are two fatty acids abundant in human milk, but until recently, were not contained in commercial infant formulas. While the role of ARA supplementation is unclear, DHA is known to be important in both brain and eye development. In some studies, DHA and ARA supplementation has been shown to provide benefits to a child s visual function and/or cognitive and behavioral development. " Other studies have shown no difference with DHA and ARA supplementation. The FDA has classified the plant-based fatty acid blends of DHA and ARA (DHASCO, ARASCO Martek Biosciences Corporation) as generally recognized as safe in infant formulas. 

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