Automation and computerisation

PEFC) stacks, components and entire systems, in off-grid, and grid-connected configurations, with a capacity of up to 100 kW electrical power output. The facility consists of an automated and computerised fuel cell test station, gas analysers, a multi-axial vibration system which is housed in a walk-in environmental chamber (for controlling temperatures, humidity, shocks and vibrations) and ancillary equipment. The data obtained are complementary to and validate fuel cell simulations and models with reference to operation modes, components and system characteristics 1 ... 

At the same time, a scientist needs not only the mathematical tool which could help him to calculate the isotherm or kinetic curve determined by a particular model. It is much more important to have a tool which helps in the analysis of experimental data how far can phenomena taking place in the experimental system can be explained in the framework of a particular model Moreover, with automated and computerised experimental devices currently available, one should naturally expect to have also the software, which is designed so as to provide him with the option of interactive and easily understandable way to analyse the results. 

In the last decades, theis basic scheme of battery manufacture has undergone a number of changes and improvements, which have resulted in acceleration, automation and computerisation of the individual technological processes and have lead eventually to a several-fold increase in productivity, preserving the principal production stages at that. 

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) provides an excellent platform to carry out these measurements. The computer-controlled HPLC with automated sample handling, injection and computerised data acquisition and processing makes possible the measurement of hundreds of samples per week without too much manual work. The measurements are made by running overnight and at weekends so this requires... 

WlO. Westlake, G., McKay, D. K., Surh, P., and Seligson, D., Automatic discrete sample processing automation in a clinical laboratory based on discrete sample handling and computerised data processing. Clin. Chem. 15, 600-610 (1969). 

Automated processing and computerised measurement of analytical images can be employed to extract specific information very accurately and repro-ducibly. The processing of analytical images itself is mainly used for two main purposes (a) to improve the visual appearance of images for enhanced interpretation by a human observer (b) to prepare the images for quantitative measurement of the inherent features and structures. 

It is the purpose of this book to describe the types of techniques now available to the polymer chemist and technician, and to discuss their capabilities, limitations and applications. All types of modern instrumentation are covered including those used in general quality control, research analysis, process monitoring and the mechanical, electrical, thermal and optical characteristics. Aspects such as automated analysis and computerised control of instruments are covered. 

Insufficient information about the properties, layout pattern of small defects, potential for their growth in time, usually leads either to an unjustified rejection (repair) or to underestimation of the importance of the defect and, as aconsequence, construction failure. Use of automated computerised means of control allows safe service of the old constructions, periodically repeating the UT and monitoring the development of discontinuities in the metal. The main idea of such policy is periodical UT of development of discontinuities or, in a more general form, monitoring of the metal condition. 

The final step of method development is validation of the HPLC method. Optimisation of chromatographic selectivity [110], performance verification testing of HPLC equipment [591], validation of computerised LC systems [592] and validation of analysis results using HPLC-PDA [34] were reported. The feasibility of automated validation of HPLC methods has been demonstrated [593]. Interlaboratory transfer of HPLC methods has been described [594]. 

Hua et al. [507] described an automated method for determination of molybdenum in seawater by means of constant-current reduction of the adsorbed 8-quinolinol complex in a computerised flow potentiometric stripping analyser. The complex was adsorbed onto a molybdenum film electrode at -0.2 V and stripped at -0.42 V. The authors report measuring molybdenum at 8.9 1.3 xg/l in reference seawater NASS-1, with a certified value of 11.5 1.9 xg/l. 

Certain commercial developments in the last twenty years or so have had important effects on the pattern of pigments production. One is the rapid growth of textile production in the Asia Pacific region and another is the development of automated dyeing methods, coupled with instrumental methods of colour measurement and of computerised colour recipe prediction. 

The widespread use of chromatography in quantitative analysis is mainly due to its reliability and to its use in standardised analyses. This type of analysis relies mainly on reproducibility of the separation and on the linear relationship that exists between the injected mass of the compound and the area of the peak in the chromatogram. The use of an integrating recorder or a microcomputer with the appropriate data treatment software allows automation of all the calculations associated with the analysis. Computer software can analyse the results and produce a computerised report. Trace and ultratrace analyses by chromatography are often the only recognised methods (EPA Methods for Environmental Analyses), although their costs are relatively high. The three most widely used methods are described below in their simplest formats. 

In spite of its limited sensitivity, colorimetry is still useful in determination of elemental concentrations in the g range or higher (Seiler, 1988). Its main advantage is that the needed instrument, a spectrophotometer, is common in every laboratory. Colorimetric trace metal determinations are based, commonly after sample decomposition, on selective separations from interfering ions (Abbasi et al., 1988). Automated colorimetric procedures are described for the determination of N and P in trees (Stewart et al., 1990). Modern spectrophotometers provide high stability, low noise, and the advantages of computerised background control. However, for total metal determinations in environmental samples, this method is less frequently applied and has been replaced by atomic spectroscopic and electrochemical methods (Stoeppler, 1991). 

Interesting advances have been made in TLC such as an automated development chamber which improves reproducibility, a cutting technology which can be used with pre-coated plates, a densitometer for quantitative evaluation of plates, as well as new computerised application databases [36]. TLC plates are getting smaller in size (surface) which leads to an increase in elution speed and to a decrease in solvent consumption. 

Appropriate controls should be exercised over computer or related systems to assure that changes in master production and control records or other records are instituted only by authorised personnel. Input to, and output from the computer or related system, of formulae or other records or data shall be checked for accuracy. A backup file of data entered into the computer or related system shall be maintained, except where certain data such as calculations are eliminated by computerisation or other automated processes. In such instances either a written record of the programme (source code) shall be maintained or the system should be validated. Hard copy or alternative systems, such as duplicates, tapes, or microfilm, designed to assure that backup data are exact and complete and that it is secure from alteration, inadvertent erasure or loss, shall be maintained. 

Computerisation can help in keeping cultivation conditions near ideal throughout the fermentation without manual intervention. It is difficult however to control pH as there is no reliable way of measuring the pH in the solid matrix. An automated packed bed system fitted with inlet and exhaust gas analysers can be used to precisely control cultivation atmospheres to give optimal enzyme yields. 

The treatment of numeric information is currently an area of substantial and rapid development. Activity in this field has been comprehensively reviewed 26) by Codata, a Committee set up by the International Council of Scientific Unions to coordinate developments. This review covers both computerised and non-computerised systems, but Codata also has a task group dealing specifically with automated information handling and this has also recently reported on the state of the art 27). 

The Shimadzu GC-15A and GC-16A systems are designed not only as independent high-performance gas chromatographs but also as core instruments (see previously) for multi-GC systems or computerised laboratory automation systems. Other details of these instruments are given in Table 5.1. The Shimadzu GC-8A range of instruments do not have a range of built-in detectors but are ordered either as temperature-programmed instruments with thermal conductivity detection (TCD), flame ionisation detection (FID), or flame photometric detectors (FPD) detectors or as isothermal instruments with TCD, FID, or electron capture detectors (ECD) (Table 5.1). 

Technological progress determines the characteristics of flows in supply chains. It influences flow time, quality, cost, effectiveness and efficiency. The computerisation and automation of operation is the most dynamic economic trend. Labour costs in supply chains, in particular in high-tech sectors, are more often generated by intellectual and social capital than by the actual labour force. The trend described above is demonstrated by the improvement of operational indicators of supply chains such as production efficiency, delivery time, production and distribution waste and process quality. It seems obvious that in the foreseeable future those supply chains that do not use modern solutions will be less competitive or will, following a survival strategy, search for other sources of competitive advantage. 

Computerisation for control and automation in pulse radiolysis [4,hJ]. The great volume of experimental results obtained by pulse radiolysis may be attributed to several factors. The radiation sources work reliably and continuously over long periods. The detection techniques mostly allow rapid replication. Digitization is routinely available for times down to about one nanosecond. One consequence is that, with a dedicated computer, the raw data can be quickly analysed on-line, and validity checks can be made on each set of data [4,h]. Another is that the operation of pulse-radiation apparatus can be automated [4,j] for example, a series of experiments at different temperatures over different periods of time, with different radiation doses, and with spectrophotometric detection at a series of... 

People s ineffective use of computerised tools is often described in terms of complacency , which is said to cause over-reliance or uncritical reliance on automation [7-10]. However, there is no general agreement about what exactly is complacency and what are the best ways to measure it [16]. What seems to be common to most characterisations is a sense of contentment, unawareness of dangers or deficiencies and failure to look for evidence or to examine the raw data in a careful enough manner. 

The recent history of the discipline is one of rapid development. Early analytical techniques were laborious and the workload was small, so results could be handwritten into ledgers, transcribed into patient reports and filed. Today, there is widespread use of automated analysers and an ever increasing number of tests are requested. Therefore computerised data management is essential to cope with the workload in an eflBcient and reliable manner. This is achieved at the Clinical Biochemistry department of West Middlesex Hospital using a system developed within the department. 

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