Worldwide consumption

Historically, the development of the acrylates proceeded slowly they first received serious attention from Otto Rohm. AcryUc acid (propenoic acid) was first prepared by the air oxidation of acrolein in 1843 (1,2). Methyl and ethyl acrylate were prepared in 1873, but were not observed to polymerize at that time (3). In 1880 poly(methyl acrylate) was reported by G. W. A. Kahlbaum, who noted that on dry distillation up to 320°C the polymer did not depolymerize (4). Rohm observed the remarkable properties of acryUc polymers while preparing for his doctoral dissertation in 1901 however, a quarter of a century elapsed before he was able to translate his observations into commercial reaUty. He obtained a U.S. patent on the sulfur vulcanization of acrylates in 1912 (5). Based on the continuing work in Rohm s laboratory, the first limited production of acrylates began in 1927 by the Rohm and Haas Company in Darmstadt, Germany (6). Use of this class of compounds has grown from that time to a total U.S. consumption in 1989 of approximately 400,000 metric tons. Total worldwide consumption is probably twice that. 

The economic magnitude of the U.S. fertilizer iadustry is iadicated by the yearly value of products which approaches 3 biUioa. U.S. fertilizer consumption represeats only about 13% of the total world consumption. Thus the aimual value of worldwide consumption is at least 22 biUion. The world investment for production faciHties to produce these quantities of fertilizer is also very high (114). 

These salts are commercially available. Worldwide consumption of fluorocomplex salts varies between 100 to 300 kg/yr. The most popular salt is AgBF. Prices vary between 1000 and 1400/kg. 

During the period from 1950 to 1992, the worldwide proven reserves of natural gas increased at an average annual rate of approximately 6.7% (3—5). In this same period, worldwide production iacreased at an average annual rate of approximately 5.7% (5) so that the annual worldwide consumption of natural gas as of 1992 was equivalent to approximately 1.7% of the proven reserves. This suggests that the proven reserves, assuming the reserves could be deUvered to the existing world markets, could satisfy the requirements of this market for more than 50 years. However, world population is expected to iacrease and the demand for natural gas is expected to expand both ia areas that are heavily iadustrialized and ia areas where iadustrialization activities are underway. 

Mercury consumption in the United States is summarized through 1992 in Table 7. Overall worldwide consumption of mercury declined in the 1980s and early 1990s. A detailed discussion of the uses and appHcations of mercury is available (3). 

In 1993, worldwide consumption of phenoHc resins exceeded 3 x 10 t slightly less than half of the total volume was produced in the United States (73). The largest-volume appHcation is in plywood adhesives, an area that accounts for ca 49% of U.S. consumption (Table 11). During the early 1980s, the volume of this apphcation more than doubled as mills converted from urea—formaldehyde (UF) to phenol—formaldehyde adhesives because of the release of formaldehyde from UF products. Other wood bonding applications account for another 15% of the volume. The next largest-volume application is insulation material at 12%. 

Table 12. Worldwide Consumption of Organic Pigments by Industrial Sectors ...

About one-third each worldwide consumption of organic pigments takes place in Western Europe (32%) and North America (29%) (25). Other geographic areas consume as follows Far East, 18% China/Russia/Eastem Europe, 12% Latin America, 4% Africa and Middle East, 3% and... 

The worldwide consumption of 4-dodecylphenol is difficult to estimate since the majority of 4-dodecylphenol produced is captively used. Prices appear in Table 3. Litde growth in the consumption of 4-dodecylphenol is predicted because of the mature nature of the markets of its derivatives. 

The worldwide consumption of 2,6-dimethylphenol is difficult to estimate accurately because the majority is captively consumed (see Table 3). Growth rate for 2,6-dimethylphenol is directiy related to the growth of engineering resins, which is generally predicted to be above average. 

Sorbic acid is produced and marketed in the United States in the dust-free powder form. The 1995 tmckload (TL) Hst price was U.S. 8.60— 8.80/kg for food grade and 12.41/kg for National Formulary (NF) grade. Water-soluble potassium sorbate is marketed as a powder or as granules. The 1995 TL Hst price was U.S. 7.90— 8.15/kg for food grade and 11.75/kg for NF grade. In addition to Eastman, the only U.S. producer, there are four Japanese producers and two producers in the European Union. Worldwide consumption in 1994 was approximately 2700—3000 metric tons and the nameplate productive capacity was approximately 2900—3100 metric tons. 

Vinyltoluene (VT) is a mixture of meta- and i ra-vinyltoluenes, typically in the ratio of 60 40. This isomer ratio results from the ratio of the corresponding ethyltoluenes in thermodynamic equiHbrium. Physical properties and chemical analysis of a typical vinyltoluene product are shown in Tables 7 and 8, respectively. Vinyltoluene monomer is produced by Dow Chemical Company and Fina Oil Chemical Company. The worldwide consumption is estimated to be approximately 100,000 t/yr. 

Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Sulfolane is used principally as a solvent for extraction of benzene, toluene, and xylene from mixtures containing aHphatic hydrocarbons (33—37). The sulfolane process was introduced in 1959 by SheU Development Company, and that process is Hcensed by Universal OH Products. A sulfolane extraction process is also Hcensed by the Atlantic Richfield Company. In 1994, worldwide consumption was estimated at ca 6974 t/yr of sulfolane for 137 sulfolane extraction units (see Bix processes Extraction, liquid-liquid Xylenes and ethylbenzene). 

Dyes, Dye Intermediates, and Naphthalene. Several thousand different synthetic dyes are known, having a total worldwide consumption of 298 million kg/yr (see Dyes AND dye intermediates). Many dyes contain some form of sulfonate as —SO H, —SO Na, or —SO2NH2. Acid dyes, solvent dyes, basic dyes, disperse dyes, fiber-reactive dyes, and vat dyes can have one or more sulfonic acid groups incorporated into their molecular stmcture. The raw materials used for the manufacture of dyes are mainly aromatic hydrocarbons (67—74) and include ben2ene, toluene, naphthalene, anthracene, pyrene, phenol (qv), pyridine, and carba2ole. Anthraquinone sulfonic acid is an important dye intermediate and is prepared by sulfonation of anthraquinone using sulfur trioxide and sulfuric acid. 

To obtain optimal performance of farm animals, foHc acid supplementation is required (86) and as is the case with most of the vitamins, the majority of worldwide consumption is as feed supplements. The foHc acid requirement for chickens and pigs is about 0.2—0.5 mg of foHc acid/kg diet and 0.3 mg/kg diet, respectively. Increased amounts, 0.5—1.0 mg/kg feed for chickens and 0.5—2.0 mg/kg for swiae, are recommended under commercial production conditions (87). The degree of intestinal foHc acid synthesis and the utilization by the animal dictates the foHc acid requirements for monogastric species. Also, the self-synthesis of folaciais dependent on dietary composition (88). 

Zinc Borates. A series of hydrated 2inc borates have been developed for use as fire-retardant additives in coatings and polymers (59,153). Worldwide consumption of these 2inc salts is several thousand metric tons per year. A substantial portion of this total is used in vinyl plastics where 2inc borates ate added alone or in combination with other fire retardants such as antimony oxide or alurnina trihydrate. 

Economic Aspects. The Aqualon Co. is the only U.S. manufacturer. It is also produced in Japan by Nippon Soda Co., Ltd. Worldwide consumption in 1987 was estimated at 2300 metric tons. 

The estimated 1990 worldwide consumption of monochloramine for hydra2iae manufacture was 55,000 t. Consumption data on use of monochloramine ia water treatmeat are aot available. The U.S. consumption of chloroisocyanurates and halogenated hydantoias ia 1986 was 44,045 and 3,409 t, respectively (183). Consumption of tetrachloroglycolutil and other specialty /V-ha1amines, eg, trichioromelamine, is small. 

Chromium. Worldwide consumption for functional uses of chromium is estimated at 13,600 metric tons. From 3630—4080 t of this is used in the United States Europe is estimated to use about 3600 t and the remainder is divided among Far Eastern and Third World countries. For functional appHcations, chromium is used for its hardness and wear properties. 

Worldwide consumption of industrial enzymes amounted to approximately 720 million in 1990 about one-third was accounted for by the U.S. market. Estimation of worldwide consumption is difficult because official production figures are scarce. A relatively large portion of the production of starch-processing enzymes is for internal consumption. Furthermore, the currency used for the estimation also influences the result considerably. 

Epoxy resin sales increased rapidly in the 1970s and continued into the 1980s as new appHcations were developed. Worldwide consumption of epoxy resins is shown in Table 8 where the proportions of the primary appHcations are shown. 

Worldwide consumption of propane in 1998 was about 96 billion gallons, of which 15 billion gallons were used in the United States by some 60 million consumers. This represents about 4 percent of the... 

An indication of the usefulness of polyurethanes can be found in worldwide consumption data as of 2000, urethanes of all types amounted to 9.25 million tons.10 The commercial success of urethane polymers can be attributed to the ability to conveniently manufacture and apply materials with specific combinations of physical properties. Furthermore, urethanes are often the best choice in demanding, high-performance applications. In this section, the applications listed in Table 4.1 are discussed and a few examples are given from each category. 

The total worldwide consumption of AOS in 1990 was of the order of 85,000 tonnes [12] split between household products (55,000 tonnes) toiletries and personal care products (20,000 tonnes), and industrial and institutional uses (10,000 tonnes). The worldwide consumption of all synthetic detergents in 1990 was as follows (1) anionics (3,390,000 tonnes), cationics (815,000 tonnes), and nonionics (910,000 tonnes). From the total of 5,115,000 tonnes, AOS consumption accounts for 1.5%. 

If fuel cells could be used in transportation vehicles, it could have a major impact on worldwide consumption of petroleum. Major improvements that are needed for this to happen include increasing the efficiency of fuel cells, increasing their power density, reducing their manufacturing cost, and developing fuel cell designs capable of rapid start-up. 

Worldwide consumption of performance additives (excluding plasticisers) grew from just over 2.7 mt in 1996 to 3.6 mt in 2001. Flame retardants make up 31 % of the volume and stabilisers, impact modifiers and lubricants each account for around 16-17%. Flame retardant markets (construction, E E devices, automotive) are headed for unprecedented development and change, being threatened by environmental, health... 

Tea is second only to water in worldwide consumption. Annual production of about 1.8 million T of dry leaf provides world per capita consumption of 40 L of beverage (Table l).1 The scientific interest in tea is due in part to the unusual chemical composition of its leaf and the complex series of reactions that occur when these components are converted to those found in commercial dry tea. Many of the reaction products interact with caffeine, modifying flavor and contributing to the technical problems of tea processing, as will be shown later. 

Canada, while consumption has declined in the U.S. Worldwide consumption, 1.1 kg per person annually over the 4-year period, has shown a slight decline as well. 

In 1994, the worldwide consumption of rubber was approximately 14.5 million tons a year, of which about 40% consisted of natural rubber. Natural rubber is produced as latex by tropical rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis). It is processed locally and therefore the quality of natural rubber fluctuates remarkably [ 140]. Due to increasing demand for rubbers, combined with a decreasing production capacity in Asia and a vast increase in labor costs, the price of natural rubber is still rising sharply. In 1990-1994, the average price of natural rubber was about 0.38 /lb, while in 1996 it was already over 0.80 /lb. The remaining 60% of the articles were manufactured from synthetic petroleum-based rubbers such as isoprene rubber, styrene-butadiene rubber, chloroprene rubber and polyurethanes. The quality of synthetic rubbers is constant, and their price varies between 2 and 5 US per kilogram [137-140]. 

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