Volume applicators

These thermoplastic pigments found application in a much wider range of finished products. New, large-volume applications included coated paper for labels and point of purchase signage, gravure for soap box cartons and bright textiles for fashion, and safety applications. 

In 1993, worldwide consumption of phenoHc resins exceeded 3 x 10 t slightly less than half of the total volume was produced in the United States (73). The largest-volume appHcation is in plywood adhesives, an area that accounts for ca 49% of U.S. consumption (Table 11). During the early 1980s, the volume of this apphcation more than doubled as mills converted from urea—formaldehyde (UF) to phenol—formaldehyde adhesives because of the release of formaldehyde from UF products. Other wood bonding applications account for another 15% of the volume. The next largest-volume application is insulation material at 12%. 

Construction. CR adhesives find uses in countertops and panel fabrication for curtain walls and partitions. Other large volume applications are the joining of... 

Case and carton sealing is a high volume application for hot melt adhesives. Typical formulas use 20-30% wax, 25-40% polymer, and 35-55% tackifier resin. The basic requirements for packaging adhesives will be described followed by formulating guidelines for specific market areas. The focus of this discussion will be on EVA and EnBA-based systems, which are the most common. 

The cost of depositing waste on controlled landfill sites is relatively cheap. However, the expense of road transport to suitable sites generally limits this disposal route to relatively low-volume applications. 

The mode of operation of a specific application should be the first consideration. The inherent design of each type of compressor defines the acceptable operating envelope or mode of operation that it can perform with reasonable reliability and life cycle costs. For example, a bullgear-type centrifugal compressor is not suitable for load-following applications but will prove exceptional service in constant-load and volume applications. 

Gas separation Hollow-fibre for high-volume applications with low-flux, low-selectivity membranes in which concentration polarisation is easily controlled (nitrogen from air) Spiral-wound when fluxes are higher, feed gases more contaminated, and concentration polarisation a problem (natural gas separations, vapour permeation). 

Textiles, paper, and other flexible substrates such as fusible interlining, interlinking drapery and upholstered fabric, and carpets are examples of large volume applications. Another important market is with metals and other rigid materials. Included are plastics (pipes, tanks, screens, etc.) that can provide protective coatings using its variety of processing techniques. 

The interest in this type of copolymers is still very strong due to their large volume applications as emulsifiers and stabilizers in many different systems 43,260,261). However, little is known about the structure-property relationships of these systems 262) and the specific interactions of different segments in these copolymers with other components in a particular multicomponent system. Sometimes, minor chemical modifications in the PDMS-PEO copolymer backbone structures can lead to dramatic changes in its properties, e.g. from a foam stabilizer to an antifoam. Therefore, recent studies are usually directed towards the modification of polymer structures and block lengths in order to optimize the overall structure-property-performance characteristics of these systems 262). 

The frontier orbital theory was developed for electrophilic aromatic substitution (Chapter Elements of a Chemical Orbital Theory by Inagaki in this volume). Application is successful to the ortho-para orientation (Scheme 23a) for the benzenes substituted with electron donating groups. The ortho and para positions have larger HOMO amplitudes. The meta orientation (Scheme 23b) for the electron accepting groups is under control of both HOMO and the next HOMO [25]. 

The types of sprayer and nozzle and number of nozzles are selected depending on the required spray volume and the shape of the crop canopy. Application method, maximum spray volume, application frequency and interval must be as stated in the protocol. 

The number of such examples, however, is not high. In many other examples of advanced-performance materials, such as DuPont s Kevlar and Allied Signal s SPECTRA, the volume applications associated with system-for-system substitution has not yet occurred at a level necessary to pay back the development and commercialization costs already expended. High-performance ceramics is another area in which the early promise has yet to materialize. The consequences of Eckstut s life-cycle dynamics have been overcapacity and severe rationalization in high-performance carbon fiber businesses, some specialty alloy activities, and high-performance polymer composites. Thus, with critical technologies that involve advanced-performance materials, we need to better understand how to exploit their value in a commercially viable way. 

De Vreede, J.A.F., De Haan, M., Brouwer, D.H., van Hemmen, J.J., and de Kort, W.L.A.M. (1994) Exposure to Pesticides. Part III. High-Volume Application to Chry-santemums in Greenhouses, Report S131-4, Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment, The Hague, The Netherlands. 

Tank-mix samples were taken prior to each application to determine actual spray concentration. For high-volume applications, the remaining spray liquid was estimated. After completing the low-volume application, the volume of the remaining spray solution was measured and another tank sample was taken. Application rates were calculated from the spray volume, acreage, and concentration of the active ingredient in the tank sample. 

Note HV = high-volume application LV = Low-volume application Tpm = thiophanate-methyl Meth = methiocarb Aba = abamectin. 

The relationship between average ADFR and application rate (AR) was tested using linear regression analysis and the model ADFR = a + b AR. All data concerning high-volume applications (n = 8) and low-volume applications (n = 4) were used, separately or together. The results of these regression analyses are presented in Table 2. 

A possible relationship between DFR and the application rate, as well as the crop volume estimate (CrV), was investigated using a multiple linear regression model (ADFR = a + b AR + c CrV). No significant contribution of crop volume to the variation of ADFR was observed (p = 0.19 and p = 0.87 for high-volume applications and all applications, respectively). 

Dislodgeable foliar residue as a function of time and estimating half-lives of the pesticides after high-volume application... 

The DFR values were followed over a period of 4 weeks from the high-volume application. The decrease of DFR in the two zones was monitored in six greenhouses (three times after application of thiophanate-methyl and three times after application of methiocarb). Figure 2 shows typical log-transformed decays of DFR (average of two samples for each zone) for methiocarb and thiophanate-methyl. Assuming a first-order decay, half-lives were calculated using Equations (3) and (4) and were found to be 29 8.5 days and 11 3.4 days for thiophanate-methyl and methiocarb, respectively. 

Based on all application data, the results of this study indicate a linear relationship between the increase of the dislodgeable foliar residue and application rate however, for the low-volume applications, this relationship is not statistically significant. The relatively limited number of data may be the reason for this. 

The results of the DFR assessment of different crop zones indicate that low-volume applications result in a more homogeneous distribution over the crop compared to high-volume applications. A recent study on the interception of high-volume applications in the cultivation of chrysanthemums revealed interception ratios from 0.2 to 1 related to the leaf area index (LAI) (Veerman et al., 1994). In our study, it was not easy to assess the LAI because of the structure of the carnation crop. Estimation of the LAI based on the results of estimation of the crop density (leaf volume index) was not reliable enough and resulted in a large variance of the calculated interception ratio (from 0.4 up to 5). 

The average value of the transfer factor (approximately 2300 cm2/hr) derived from all data in our study differs somewhat from the transfer factor of 3300 cm2/hr observed in a preceding study during the cultivation of carnations (Brouwer et al., 1992). However, that transfer factor had been derived from data on both high-volume spray (as in the present study) and dusting operations. The powder formulations showed an effective transfer of the residue to the body. Recalculated transfer factors for only high-volume applications showed an average of approximately 2500 cm2/hr. 

Harvesting carnations will account for average transfer factors of about 2000 cm2/hr for pesticides applied by high-volume applications. A critical evaluation of existing data may generate more reliable generic transfer factors for use in the re-entry model. 

Other Printing Applications. There are a number of lower volume applications of photopolymer chemistry to the printing industry. Some of these include the production of tactile images (raised Braille patterns) (47) and screen stencil resists... 

Nanocomposites General Motors and Basell Polyolefins continue the development of nanocomposites for high-volume applications in external trim parts such as body panels. Three grades of TPO-based nanocomposites reinforced with 2.5% nanoclay have been commercialized by Basell Polyolefins. The first application of these nanocomposites was a low-volume minivan step option. 

The prototypical C-C bond forming hydrogenation, hydroformylation combines basic feedstocks (a-olefins, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen) with perfect atom economy and accounts for the production of over 10 million metric tons of aldehyde annually, making it the largest volume application of homogeneous metal catalysis. 

Among the new application areas that could become large volume applications are the use of molecular sieves as functional powders, in odor removal, as plastic additives and in composites. The use of zeolites in solid-state applications is highly speculative. If ever practically realized that application would most probably represent a relatively small volume of the total zeolite consumption. 

Willingham, M. C. and Pastan, I. (1990) A reversible multi-well chamber for incubation of cnltnred cells with small volumes application to screening of hybridoma fusions nsing immnnoflnorescence microscopy. Biotechniques 8, 320-324. 

---