Waste, defined

Nonglass pH electrodes, 14 24 Nonhalogenated resin systems, 20 115 Nonhalogenated solvents, 19 800 Nonhazardous waste, defined, 25 862 Nonheterocyclic compounds, pyridine ring syntheses from, 21 108—110 Nonhomologous extension modeling, in protein structure prediction, 20 837-839... 

Based on these principles, the essence of NCRP s recommendations is that waste that contains radionuclides or hazardous chemicals should be classified in relation to the types of disposal systems (technologies) that are expected to be generally acceptable in protecting public health. Specifically, the classification system developed in this Report includes three classes of waste defined as follows ... 

Recommendations on subclassifications of the basic classes of exempt, low-hazard, and high-hazard waste defined in Section 6.2.2 are not developed in this Report. However, NCRP acknowledges that subclassifications of basic waste classes would be reasonable, particularly in the case of low-hazard and high-hazard wastes. NCRP believes that any such subclassifications should be consistent with the physical, chemical, radiological, and toxicological properties of waste, and with requirements for safe management and disposal. NCRP believes that extrinsic and non-risk-related factors, such as the source of a waste, should not be used in subclassifying risk-based waste classifications. 

Municipal solid waste, defined to be nonhazar-dous, is widely generated by households, commercial establishments such as restaurants, public, private, and government facilities. 

A person who seeks to determine whether the RCRA regulations apply to him must first ascertain whether he handles waste defined as hazardous under the statute and under EPA s regulations. RCRA 1004(27) defines solid waste as discarded material such as garbage, refuse, sludge from waste or... 

Wastes defined as hazardous under RCRA include characteristic and listed wastes. An RCRA-defined hazardous waste is a waste that appears on one of four lists (F list, K list, U list, or P list) or exhibits at least one of four characteristics (ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity). Criteria for identifying characteristic hazardous wastes are included in Title 40, CFR part 261, subpart C. Listed wastes from industrial sources are itemized in 40 CFR part 261, subpart D. Other regulations that are relevant to the technology include the requirement to characterize the waste for a hazardous waste generator (40 CFR part 262.11), the requirement to determine if the hazardous waste is restricted from land disposal [40 CFR 268.7(a)], requirements for on-site storage of waste for up to 90 days [40 CFR 262.34(a)], or 40 CFR 264.553 for storage of waste in a temporary unit for up to 1 year prior to disposal. 

Goal The elimination of waste (defined as "activities that add cost, but do not add value"). A closer definition of the Japanese usage of kaizen is "to take it apart and put it back together in a better way." What is taken apart is usually a process, system, product, or service. 

CFR 1926.59, Hazard Communication Your used oil would be considered a hazardous waste defined under 40 CFR 260-299, Solid Wastes, or a hazardous substance defined under 40 CFR 300-399, Superfund, Emergency Planning, and Community Right-to-know Programs. 

Regulations contain specific provisions for restricting the land disposal of RCRA hazardous wastes. Listed wastes (defined in Subpart 0 CFR 261) and materials with the following code ... 

Waste defines post consumer materials such as used packaging and end-of-life products... 

Processes which give rise to significant quantities of special waste that is, waste defined in law in terms of its toxicity or flammability. 

In addition to hazardous wastes defined under RCRA, there are hazardous substances defined by Superfund. Superfund s definition of a hazardous substance is broad and grows out of the statutory definitions in the Clean Water Act (CWA), the Clean Air Act (CAA), the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), and RCRA. Superfund considers a hazardous substance to be any air or water pollutant defined as hazardous in the CAA or the CWA, or as a hazardous waste defined in RCRA, that exceeds reportable quantity levels. Superfund encompasses numerous wastes and chemical substances ... 

Raw materials costs dominate the operating costs of most processes (see App. A). Also, if raw materials are not used efficiently, this creates waste, which then becomes an environmental problem. It is therefore important to have a measure of the efficiency of raw materials use. The process yield is defined as... 

The catalytic vapor-phase oxidation of propylene is generally carried out in a fixed-bed multitube reactor at near atmospheric pressures and elevated temperatures (ca 350°C) molten salt is used for temperature control. Air is commonly used as the oxygen source and steam is added to suppress the formation of flammable gas mixtures. Operation can be single pass or a recycle stream may be employed. Recent interest has focused on improving process efficiency and minimizing process wastes by defining process improvements that use recycle of process gas streams and/or use of new reaction diluents (20-24). 

Nearly every chemical manufacturiag operation requites the use of separation processes to recover and purify the desired product. In most circumstances, the efficiency of the separation process has a significant impact on both the quality and the cost of the product (1). Liquid-phase adsorption has long been used for the removal of contaminants present at low concentrations in process streams. In most cases, the objective is to remove a specific feed component alternatively, the contaminants are not well defined, and the objective is the improvement of feed quality defined by color, taste, odor, and storage stability (2-5) (see Wastes, industrial Water, industrial watertreati nt). 

Physical Properties. Physical properties of waste as fuels are defined in accordance with the specific materials under consideration. The greatest degree of definition exists for wood and related biofuels. The least degree of definition exists for MSW, related RDF products, and the broad array of ha2ardous wastes. Table 3 compares the physical property data of some representative combustible wastes with the traditional fossil fuel bituminous coal. The soHd organic wastes typically have specific gravities or bulk densities much lower than those associated with coal and lignite. 

Where T)is flame temperature in K MC is moisture content of the waste, expressed on a total weight basis SR is defined as stoichiometric ratio or moles O2 avadable/moles O2 required for complete oxidation of the carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur in the fuel, ie, 1/SR = equivalence ratio and is temperature of the combustion air, expressed in K. In Fnglish units, this equation is as follows ... 

Biomass. Biomass is simply defined for these purposes as any organic waste material, such as agricultural residues, animal manure, forestry residues, municipal waste, and sewage, which originated from a living organism (70—74). 

Chemical Reaction Measurements. Experimental studies of incineration kinetics have been described (37—39), where the waste species is generally introduced as a gas in a large excess of oxidant so that the oxidant concentration is constant, and the heat of reaction is negligible compared to the heat flux required to maintain the reacting mixture at temperature. The reaction is conducted in an externally heated reactor so that the temperature can be controlled to a known value and both oxidant concentration and temperature can be easily varied. The experimental reactor is generally a long tube of small diameter so that the residence time is well defined and axial dispersion may be neglected as a source of variation. Off-gas analysis is used to track both the disappearance of the feed material and the appearance and disappearance of any products of incomplete combustion. 

Classification of wastes may be according to purpose, distinguishing between defense waste related to military appHcations, and commercial waste related to civiUan appHcations. Classification may also be by the type of waste, ie, mill tailings, high level radioactive waste (HLW), spent fuel, low level radioactive waste (LLW), or transuranic waste (TRU). Alternatively, the radionucHdes and the degree of radioactivity can define the waste. Surveys of nuclear waste management (1,2) and more technical information (3—5) are available. 

Radioactive waste is characterized by volume and activity, defined as the number of disintegrations per second, known as becquerels. Each radionucHde has a unique half-life,, and corresponding decay constant, A = 0.693/tj 2 For a component radionucHde consisting of JS1 atoms, the activity, M, is defined as... 

Interestingly, the difficulty defining MSW has led to many inaccurate poHcy conclusions. Most notably, it is often assumed that the United States generates far more waste than other (particularly European) countries. However, generally other countries define MSW as that which the municipality coUects, ie, household waste. Given that household waste accounts for only about 45% of U.S. MSW, it is incorrect to conclude on the basis of aggregate figures that the United States is more wastehil than other industrialized countries. 

Refuse-Derived Fuel. Many processing faciUties divert a portion of the material that is not recovered for recycling to waste-to-energy plants, also referred to as resource recovery faciUties, where the material is employed as fuel. The processes involved in the production of refuse-derived fuel (RDF) are outlined in Figure 4 (23). Nine different RDFs have been defined, as Hsted in Table 3 (24). There are several ways to prepare RDF-3, which is perhaps the most popular form and is the feed used in the preparation of densified refuse-derived fuel (d-RDF). AH forms of RDF are part of the broader set of waste-derived fuels (WDF), which includes various waste biomass, eg, from silvaculture or agriculture (see Fuels frombiomass Fuels fromwaste). 

Scrap from municipal refuse may be in the form of source-separated steel cans, a mixed ferrous fraction, metal magnetically separated from mixed waste or incinerator ash, and C D debris. An ASTM specification (E1134-86) was developed in 1991 for source-separated steel cans. The Steel Recycling Institute has a descriptive steel can specification entitled "Steel Can Scrap Specifications". PubHshed standards for municipal ferrous scrap also include ASTM E701-80, which defines chemical and physical test methods, and ASTM E702-85 which covers the chemical and physical requirements of ferrous scrap for several scrap-consurning industries. 

The process and economics are detailed (21). Owing to the complex nature of the wastes, the process becomes economical only at high production volumes. Several alternative schemes could be developed based on available technologies. Of primary importance is a thorough understanding of the types and constituents of the wastes that feed the processes. Once this is defined, the process options must be considered and tested. A knowledge of what the process caimot do, ie, its limitations, is just as important as a clear understanding of process capabiUties. 

Nuclear Waste. NRC defines high level radioactive waste to include (/) irradiated (spent) reactor fuel (2) Hquid waste resulting from the operation of the first cycle solvent extraction system, and the concentrated wastes from subsequent extraction cycles, in a faciHty for reprocessing irradiated reactor fuel and (3) soHds into which such Hquid wastes have been converted. Approximately 23,000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel has been stored at commercial nuclear reactors as of 1991. This amount is expected to double by the year 2001. 

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