Cellulose textile fibers from

The first successhil attempt to make textile fibers from plant cellulose can be traced to George Audemars (1). In 1855 he dissolved the nitrated form of cellulose in ether and alcohol and discovered that fibers were formed as the dope was drawn into the air. These soft strong nitrocellulose fibers could be woven into fabrics but had a serious drawback they were explosive, nitrated cellulose being the basis of gun-cotton (see Cellulose esters, inorganic esters). 

From 1980 to 1988, aimual cellulose acetate flake production in the United States showed a slight decrease in production from 392,000 t to 323,000 t with an aimual decline of —0.4 to —0.1% (Table 6). World demand for cellulose acetate flake has also fallen. A modest recovery has occurred in recent years as a result of the increased demand for cigarette-filter tow world consumption of cigarette-filter tow has risen about 2.5% per year since 1980 (Tables 7 and 8). In contrast, world demand for textile fibers and cellulose ester plastics decline 4.6% and 4.2% per year, respectively (Fig. 9). 

The two most common natural textile fibers encountered in modern fabrics have contrasting responses to soil burial. Under most soil burial conditions cellulose will degrade rapidly whereas wool will decay at a slower rate. These phenomena are demonstrated by the degradation of textile fibers from the Experimental Earthworks Project (Janaway 1996a). Figures 7.9 and 7.10 compare wool and linen buried in the chalk environments at Overton Down for 32 years. The linen is denatured to the point that there is little surviving morphology, whereas the wool retained some fiber structure. 

For both paper and textiles made from cellulose fiber, permanence can be improved by bringing the pH to 7 or slightly higher. An alkaline... 

Hibbbrt, H., and J. Barsha Synthetic cellulose and textile fibers from... 

Textiles made from cellulosic fibers and synthetics can be washed without problems. Apparel and higher class garments are made from wool and silk. Washing very often bears a high risk. So these kinds of textiles are typically dry cleaned. 

Chemical fibers from natural polymers may be derived from plants as well as animals. For the textile sector, cellulosic fibers are the most important. These are divided into fibers from regenerated cellulose, for example, cuproammonium or viscose filaments, and fibers from cellulosic esters, such as acetate and triacetate fibers. 

Sir Joseph Swan, as a result of his quest for carbon fiber for lamp filaments (2), learned how to denitrate nitrocellulose using ammonium sulfide. In 1885 he exhibited the first textiles made from this new artificial sHk, but with carbon fiber being his main theme he failed to foUow up on the textile possibihties. Meanwhile Count Hilaire de Chardoimet (3) was researching the nitrocellulose route and had perfected his first fibers and textiles in time for the Paris Exhibition in 1889. There he got the necessary financial backing for the first Chardoimet silk factory in Besancon in 1890. His process involved treating mulberry leaves with nitric and sulfuric acids to form cellulose nitrate which could be dissolved in ether and alcohol. This collodion solution could be extmded through holes in a spinneret into warm air where solvent evaporation led to the formation of soHd cellulose nitrate filaments. 

The bulk properties of regenerated cellulose are the properties of Cellulose II which is created from Cellulose I by alkaline expansion of the crystal stmcture (97,101) (see Cellulose). The key textile fiber properties for the most important current varieties of regenerated cellulose are shown in Table 2. Fiber densities vary between 1.53 and 1.50. 

Among the bast textile fibers, the density is close to 1.5 g/cm, or that of cellulose itself, and they are denser than polyester, as shown iu Table 5. Moisture regain (absorbency) is highest iu jute at 14%, whereas that of polyester is below 1%. The bast fibers are typically low iu elongation and recovery from stretch. Ramie fiber has a particularly high fiber length/width ratio. 

Fibers (see Fibers, survey) used in textile production can have a wide variety of origins plants, ie, ceUulosic fibers (see Fibers, cellulose esters) animals, ie, protein fibers (see Wool) and, in the twentieth century, synthetic polymers. Depending on the part of the plant, the ceUulosic fibers can be classified as seed fibers, eg, cotton (qv), kapok bast fibers, eg, linen from flax, hemp, jute and leaf fibers, eg, agave. Protein fibers include wool and hair fibers from a large variety of mammals, eg, sheep, goats, camels, rabbits, etc, and the cocoon material of insect larvae (sUk). Real sUk is derived from the cocoon of the silkworm, Bombjx mori and for a long time was only produced in China, from which it was traded widely as a highly valuable material. 

Sulfates of sodium are iadustriaUy important materials commonly sold ia three forms (Table 1). In the period from 1970 to 1981, > 1 million metric tons were consumed aimuaHy ia the United States. Siace then, demand has declined. In 1988 consumption dropped to 890,000 t, and ia 1994 to 610,000 t (1,2). Sodium sulfate is used principally (40%) ia the soap (qv) and detergent iadustries. Pulp and paper manufacturers consume 25%, textiles 19%, glass 5%, and miscellaneous iadustries consume 11% (3). About half of all sodium sulfate produced is a synthetic by-product of rayon, dichromate, phenol (qv), or potash (see Chromium compounds Fibers, regenerated cellulosics Potassium compounds). Sodium sulfate made as a by-product is referred to as synthetic. Sodium sulfate made from mirabilite, thenardite, or naturally occurring brine is called natural sodium sulfate. In 1994, about 300,000 t of sodium sulfate were produced as a by-product another 300,000 t were produced from natural sodium sulfate deposits (4). 

Demand for cellulose acetate flake in the United States is projected to decline slightly from 1988 to 1993. Cigarette-filter tow for export is the only market projected to grow. Cellulose acetate for textile fibers is expected to decline, as will flake demand for plastics, with the growth of photographic films somewhat offsetting declining markets in other plastics end uses. 

A rather impressive Hst of materials and products are made from renewable resources. For example, per capita consumption of wood is twice that of all metals combined. The ceUulosic fibers, rayon and cellulose acetate, are among the oldest and stiU relatively popular textile fibers and plastics. Soy and other oilseeds, including the cereals, are refined into important commodities such as starch, protein, oil, and their derivatives. The naval stores, turpentine, pine oil, and resin, are stiU important although their sources are changing from the traditional gum and pine stumps to tall oil recovered from pulping. 

Uses/Sources. Wood contains 50-70% cellulose cotton and other textile fibers of plant origin contain 65-95% rayon is prepared by dissolving natural cellulose and then precipitating it from solution, with some loss of crystallinity. Cellulose is made into cellophane film and is used to form fibers, resins, coatings and gums. 

Mention has already been made of two polymers that can be obtained naturally from living animals silk (from the silkworm) and wool (from sheep). They are proteins made of various amino acids both are used in textiles. Other biologically derived polymers are also familiar such as wood, starch, and some sugars. We will not cover these in detail here. However, certain cellulosics we will discuss briefly since they are compared to synthetic fibers later. Cellulose is the primary substance of which the walls of vegetable cells are constructed and is largely composed of glucose residues. It may be obtained from wood or derived in very high purity from cotton fibers, which are about 92% pure cellulose. 

Cellulose is used in the textile industry in cloths, cartons, carpets, blankets, and sheets. Paper is made from cellulose. Cellulosic fibers are also used as filter materials in artificial kidneys and reverse osmosis though today most kidney dialysis units use cuprammonium tubular films derived from cellulose rather than cellulose itself. 

Cellulose is the main structural element of the cell walls of most plants and is also a major component of wood, as well as cotton and other textile fibers, such as linen and hemp. The history of cellulose is as old as that of humankind. For instance, fine clothes and cottons have been recovered from the tombs of the ancient kings of Egypt, the pharaohs. Today, cellulose and its derivatives are used in the industrial preparation of paper and also in the chemical industry as a stabilizer, dispersing agent, thickener, and gelling agent. Cellulose is also a component of dietary fiber. 

Linen textiles made from flax fibers have been known and used by mankind since antiquity (1 ). Flax has been used in many textile constructions including fine linen fabrics, laces, embroideries, and bridal fashions, and many historic linen textiles have become part of permanent museum collections. Older linen fabrics and laces are prized for their natural creamy color and luster and often have been recycled and reused. However, little is known about natural aging of linen. Most aging studies for cellulosics such as linen have involved accelerated heat-induced aging. 

The preservation of textiles made from man-made fibers requires attention to similar factors as textiles made from natural fibers—i.e., temperature, humidity, light conditions, and air purity. In some instances, preservation should be easier. Synthetic fibers and cellulose derivative fibers, for example, would be less prone to insect damage than natural fibers. As in the case of the natural fibers, there are well-established techniques for determining the type and extent of damage that has occurred to man-made fibers during use. This will assist in determining cleaning and preservation techniques. 

---