Lead-acid stationary batteries

The classical scheme for the manufacture of flat pasted plates for automotive, traction and stationary lead-acid batteries is shown in Fig. 3.1. There is no difference between the technology of plate manufacture for conventional (flooded) and valve-regulated (VRLA) lead acid batteries. The two versions do differ, however, in the method of separation of the plates, the quantity and type (hquid or gel) of electrolyte, and in the design of the battery itself. 

Stationary lead-acid batteries. General requirements and methods of test. 

Standards for Stationary Lead-Acid Batteries (Selection)... 

Table 6.1 summarizes which individual measures must be taken in relation to stationary lead-acid batteries. 

The immobilized electrolyte in valve-regulated lead-acid batteries favors cycle life. High quality stationary lead-acid batteries, e.g. the Varta bloc type (Vb), reach a cycle life up to 1400 cycles before the capacity falls below 80% of the nominal capacity. High quality valve-regulated lead-acid batteries, e.g. the type OPzV, reach more than 600 cycles. 

STANDARDS FOR STATIONARY LEAD-ACID BATTERIES (SELECTION)... 

E. J. Eriedman et al.. Electrotechnology, vol. 3 Stationary Lead-Acid Batteries. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1980. 

The case is the largest portion of the container. The case is divided into compartments which hold the cell elements. The cores normally have a mud-rest area used to collect shed soHds from the battery plates and supply support to the element. Typical materials of constmction for the battery container are polypropylene, polycarbonate, SAN, ABS, and to a much lesser extent, hard mbber. The material used in fabrication depends on the battery s appHcation. Typical material selections include a polypropylene—ethylene copolymer for SLI batteries polystyrene for stationary batteries polycarbonate for large, single ceU standby power batteries and ABS for certain sealed lead—acid batteries. 

Surface Coating of Metal Furniture Stationary Gas Turbines Lime Manufacturing Plants Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing Plants Metallic Mineral Processing Plants Automobile and Light-Duty Truck Surface Coating Operations... 

Lead-acid batteries can be classified into three major types or categories, namely, automotive (SLI), stationary, and motive power (industrial). In addition, there are many special batteries that cannot be easily categorized as either of the above types. As these types of batteries are constructed with different materials and design to meet the requirements of their intended end uses, each requires a particular separator with specific material composition, mechanical design, and physical, chemical, and electrochemical properties that are tailored for the battery and its relevant specific uses. These batteries are generally available in flooded electrolyte or valve regulated (sealed) versions. In this section the types... 

By far the largest sector of the battery industry worldwide is based on the lead-acid aqueous cell whose dominance is due to a combination of low cost, versatility and the excellent reversibility of the electrochemical system, Lead-acid cells have extensive use both as portable power sources for vehicle service and traction, and in stationary applications ranging from small emergency supplies to load levelling systems. In terms of sales, the lead-acid battery occupies over 50% of the entire primary and secondary market, with an estimated value of 100 billion per annum before retail mark-up. 

Since 1803, when Ritter invented the voltaic pile, rechargeable batteries have been known to exist [5]. The big breakthrough came in 1859, when Plante introduced the lead-acid battery [6]. Until today, this kind of secondary battery has been the most well-known electrochemical device. It is omnipresent in every car as a starter battery and also plays an important role in stationary energy storage (e.g. for uninterruptable power supplies). 

Standards of Performance for Stationary Gas Turbines Standards of Performance for Lime Manufacturing Plants Standards of Performance for Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing Plants Standards of Performance for Metallic Mineral Processing Plants... 

Lead acid batteries have been used for more than 130 years in many different applications including automotive and various traction duties and also telecommunication systems and uninterruptible power supphes (UPS). The last two groups constitute the major part of the so-called stationary battery sector, and the lead-acid battery has proved to be a very reliable system for these appUcations. 

Lead-acid batteries were first used in stationary, stand-by applications more than 130 years ago [1]. For a long period of time, only flooded lead-acid batteries were used. Nowadays, UPS and telecommunications applications use valve-regulated batteries. Large, utility-scale applications such as load levelling continue to use flooded batteries, but it seems that, increasingly, valve-regulated batteries are chosen even for these applications. 

Sonnenschein was the first company to introduce gel battery technology to the market successfully. They started in 1958 with rather small batteries for flashlights. Since that time, this technology has steadily replaced the conventional, flooded lead-acid battery in various applications [38,71,72]. Phosphoric acid addition for cycling was first introduced in 1965. Larger gel batteries with tubular positive plates were developed for stationary applications in 1978. More recently, gel batteries have been produced for starter and traction applications, and thick, flat positive plates were added for telecommunications applications. 

Lead is used in batteries, inorganic chemicals, pipes, solders, electric wires, etc., but batteries accounted for 72% of the total usage of lead in 1997. Therefore it can be said that batteries play an important role in the recycling of lead. Lead-acid batteries are classified into motor vehicle batteries (for automobiles and motorcycles), industrial batteries (stationary batteries, traction batteries, etc.), small-size sealed batteries (for UPS and consumer products). Table 2.1 shows their shipments. 

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