Shockley, William, Brattain

The first solid-state transistor was made not from silicon but from the element below it in the Periodic Table germanium. This substance is also a semiconductor, and can be doped in the same way. William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen devised the germanium transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey in 1947. It was a crude and clunky device (Fig. VJa) - bigger than a single one of today s silicon chips, which can house millions of miniaturized transistors, diodes, and other components (Fig. Vjb). The three inventors shared the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956. 

Winkler, Clemens Alexander (1838-1904) German chemist who discovered germanium, one of the elements predicted by Dmitry Mendeleyev on the basis of the periodic table. Germanium became well known when the physicists William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen used it to make a point contact rectifier and then the first transistor. 

The Shockley involved in this symposium was ihe same William Shockley who had participated in the invention of the transistor in 1947. Soon after that momentous event, he became very frustrated at Bell Laboratories (and virtually broke with his coinventors, Walter Brattain and John Bardeen), as depicted in detail in a rivetting history of the transistor (Riordan and Hoddeson 1997). For some years, while still working at Bell Laboratories, he became closely involved with dislocation geometry, clearly as a means of escaping from his career frustrations, before eventually turning fulltime to transistor manufacture. 

Ohl demonstrated his results to Kelly early in 1940 Kelly felt that his instincts had been proved justified. Thereupon, Bell Labs had to focus single-mindedly on radar and on silicon rectifiers for this purpose. It was not till 1945 that basic research restarted. This was the year that the theorist John Bardeen was recruited, and he in due course became inseparable from Walter Brattain, an older man and a fine experimenter who had been with Bell since the late 1920s. William Shockley formed the third member of the triumvirate, though from an early stage he and Bardeen found themselves so mutually antagonistic that Bardeen was sometimes close to resignation. But tension can be productive as well as depressing. 

The study of electrons trapped in matter (commonly termed solid state ) led eventually to the invention of the transistor in 1947 by Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories, and then to the integrated circuit hy Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby a decade later. Use of these devices dominated the second half of the twentieth century, most notably through computers, with a significant stininlus to development being given by military expenditures. 

In 1948 William Bradford Shockley (1910-1989), who is considered the inventor of the transistor, and his associates at Bell Research Laboratories, Walter Houser Brattain (1902-1987) and John Bardeen (1908-1991), discovered that a crystal of germanium could act as a semiconductor of electricity. This unique property of germanium indicated to them that it could be used as both a rectifier and an amplifier to replace the old glass vacuum tubes in radios. Their friend John Robinson Pierce (1910-2002) gave this new solid-state device the name transistor, since the device had to overcome some resistance when a current of electricity passed through it. Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen all shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics. 

The control of charge flow by an electric quantity is a key issue of today s electronics. The concept to electrically specify the conductivity of a resistor by pure solid state effects was already proposed in 1928 by Julius Edgar Lilien-feld in Germany [1], The basic idea was to control the charge carrier density in a solid by an electric field, applied over a third electrode. However, there is no evidence for a practical realisation by Lilienfeld. The first report about a pure electrically controllable solid state device was the well know Germanium transistor from William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain [2]. The new term transistor was later explained as a combination of the words transconductance and varistor . Meanwhile a broad variety of different transistor concepts exists, which, however, can be mainly subdivided in two basic operational principles ... 

In 1947, a device consisting of a layer of j -type silicon sandwiched between two w-type layers was constructed by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at the Bell Laboratories. This device, called the transistor, has revolutionized our world (Figure 18.8). Because the transistor can control electron flow in circuits with such accuracy, yet is so small and requires so little power to operate, it is now possible to design electronic... 

FIGURE 18.8 The transistor and its inventors, (a) The first transistor, constructed in 1947 at Bell Laboratories. Electrical contact is made at a single point and the signal is amplified as it passes through a solid semiconductor modern junction transistors amplify in a similar manner, (b) Envelope and stamp commemorating 25 years of the transistor, with portraits of its inventors, Walter Brattain, William Shockley, and John Bardeen. 

US physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain (1902-87), and William Shockley (1910-89) invent the point-contact transistor. 

The first transistor was developed in 1947 by Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley, and this replaced the cumbersome vacuum tube. Bridging the gap between the transistor and the integrated circuit was the planar process, devised in 1957 by Jean Hourni and developed in 1958 by Robert N. Noyce, which provided a means of creating a layered structure on the silicon base of a chip. 

The transistor was invented in 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley, employees of Bell Laboratories. By soldering together boards of transistors, electrical engineers created the first modern computers in the 1960 s. By the 1970 s, integrated circuits were shrinking the size of computers and the purely electrical focus of the field. 

The Transistor. In 1947, three scientists from BeU Telephone Laboratories, Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley, invented the transistor, a solid-state device that would replace the vacuum tube. The tiny device was a solid and did not employ a vacuum or special gas. It consumed very little power and could perform amplification or switching just as the vacuum tube could. Eurthermore, its life was almost unlimited. Over the years, it also became very inexpensive. 

Bondyopadhyay, Probir K., Pallab K. Ghatteijee, and Utpal K. Ghakrabarti, eds. Proceedings ofthelEEE Special Issue on the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Transistor no. 1 (January, 1998). Gomprehensive collection of papers concerning the invention of the transistor Moore s law patents, letters, and notes by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain and life in the early days of Silicon Valley. 

Bardeen, John (1908-1991) A Wisconsin-born electrical engineer and physicist, Bardeen worked for Gulf Oil, researching magnetism and gravity, and later studied mathematics and physics at Princeton University, where he earned a doctoral degree. While working at Bell Laboratories after World War II he, Walter Brattain (1902-1987), and William Shockley (1910-1989) invented the transistor, for which they shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1972, Bardeen shared a second Nobel Prize in Physics for a jointly developed theory of superconductivity he is the only person to win the same award twice. 

Transistor (John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William Shockley) Hoping to build a solid-state amplifier, the team of Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley discover the transistor, which replaces the vacuum tube in electronics. Bardeen is later part of the group that develops theory of superconductivity. 

World War II ended in 1945. In addition to the critical role computing machines played in the design of the first atomic bombs, computational science played an important role in predicting the behavior of targets. The capabilities of computing machines would grow rapidly following the invention of the transistor by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley in 1947. In this case, fundamental science led to tremendous advances in applied science. 

Andre Geim, Konstantin Novoselov 1956 William B. Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain... 

Before the invention of the transistor in 1947 at Bell Laboratories by John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William B. Shockley, vacuum tubes were the workhorse of electronics. Vacuum tubes were bulky and fragile, required high voltage (>45 V) and a heater current to operate, and had lifetimes comparable to electric light bulbs. It is certainly no exaggeration to say that the transistor made possible modem solid-state electronics. Transistors serve much the same fimction as the old vacuum tubes but are much smaller, mgged, operate on low voltages, and have virtually infinite lifetimes. 

To understand the history of microlithography and its importance, and to motivate the various advances relative to polymeric materials used in resists, a brief background and introduction to semiconductor microelectronics and the role of miaolithography in that industry are helpful. Although the invention of the first semicondudor transistor by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain at Bell Labs in 1947 was an immensely important milestone, as recognized in part by a Nobel Prize awarded to them in 1956, it was really the invention of the first monolithic IC by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce in 1960 that ushered in what people enjoy today as the era of modem miaoelecttonics. The integrated devices developed by Kilby and Noyce consisted of many solid-state... 

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