Shockley, William

Shockley William Bradford (1910-1989). American physicist, Stanford, California, USA. 

Shockley, William (1910-1989) A physicist and inventor horn to American parents in England, Shockley was raised in CaUfomia. After earning a doctoral degree, he conducted solid-state physics... 

Nix and Shockley [6] gave a detailed review of the status of order-disorder theory and experiment up to 1938, with emphasis on analytic improvements to the original Bragg-Williams theory, some of which will be... 

The Shockley involved in this symposium was ihe same William Shockley who had participated in the invention of the transistor in 1947. Soon after that momentous event, he became very frustrated at Bell Laboratories (and virtually broke with his coinventors, Walter Brattain and John Bardeen), as depicted in detail in a rivetting history of the transistor (Riordan and Hoddeson 1997). For some years, while still working at Bell Laboratories, he became closely involved with dislocation geometry, clearly as a means of escaping from his career frustrations, before eventually turning fulltime to transistor manufacture. 

Ohl demonstrated his results to Kelly early in 1940 Kelly felt that his instincts had been proved justified. Thereupon, Bell Labs had to focus single-mindedly on radar and on silicon rectifiers for this purpose. It was not till 1945 that basic research restarted. This was the year that the theorist John Bardeen was recruited, and he in due course became inseparable from Walter Brattain, an older man and a fine experimenter who had been with Bell since the late 1920s. William Shockley formed the third member of the triumvirate, though from an early stage he and Bardeen found themselves so mutually antagonistic that Bardeen was sometimes close to resignation. But tension can be productive as well as depressing. 

William Shockley (seated), John Bardeen (standing, left), and Waller H. Braltain doing transistor research at Bell Telephone Laboratories (New York, 194S). (Corbis Corporation)... 

The study of electrons trapped in matter (commonly termed solid state ) led eventually to the invention of the transistor in 1947 by Walter Brattain, John Bardeen, and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories, and then to the integrated circuit hy Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby a decade later. Use of these devices dominated the second half of the twentieth century, most notably through computers, with a significant stininlus to development being given by military expenditures. 

In 1948 William Bradford Shockley (1910-1989), who is considered the inventor of the transistor, and his associates at Bell Research Laboratories, Walter Houser Brattain (1902-1987) and John Bardeen (1908-1991), discovered that a crystal of germanium could act as a semiconductor of electricity. This unique property of germanium indicated to them that it could be used as both a rectifier and an amplifier to replace the old glass vacuum tubes in radios. Their friend John Robinson Pierce (1910-2002) gave this new solid-state device the name transistor, since the device had to overcome some resistance when a current of electricity passed through it. Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen all shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics. 

The first solid-state transistor was made not from silicon but from the element below it in the Periodic Table germanium. This substance is also a semiconductor, and can be doped in the same way. William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and John Bardeen devised the germanium transistor at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey in 1947. It was a crude and clunky device (Fig. VJa) - bigger than a single one of today s silicon chips, which can house millions of miniaturized transistors, diodes, and other components (Fig. Vjb). The three inventors shared the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956. 

William Bradford Shockley (1910-1989). 23 Hans Joachim Queisser (1931- ). 

The discussion of co-operative phenomena given here is based on the simple Bragg-Williams model. The modern theories of order-disorder changes have undergone rapid development recently. The situation in 1938 is admirably reviewed by Nix and Shockley 1 more recent summaries of both theoretical and experimental developments will be found in papers by Lipson and Wannier. See also Guggenheim,Rush-brooke, and footnote p. 305. 

The control of charge flow by an electric quantity is a key issue of today s electronics. The concept to electrically specify the conductivity of a resistor by pure solid state effects was already proposed in 1928 by Julius Edgar Lilien-feld in Germany [1], The basic idea was to control the charge carrier density in a solid by an electric field, applied over a third electrode. However, there is no evidence for a practical realisation by Lilienfeld. The first report about a pure electrically controllable solid state device was the well know Germanium transistor from William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain [2]. The new term transistor was later explained as a combination of the words transconductance and varistor . Meanwhile a broad variety of different transistor concepts exists, which, however, can be mainly subdivided in two basic operational principles ... 

The fact that shallow p- and n-type dopants of germanium could be considered as H-like atoms emerged at the end of the 1940s to explain the electrical conductivity of this material, and this was clearly expressed by William Shockley in his monograph Electrons and holes in semiconductors , first published in 1950. 

Figure A2.5.21. The heat eapacity of an order-disorder alloy like p-brass ealeulated from various anal5dic treatments. Bragg-Williams (mean-field or zeroth approximation) Bethe-1 (first approximation also Guggenheim) Bethe-2 (second approximation) Kirkwood. Each approximation makes the heat capacity sharper and higher, but still finite. Reproduced from [6] Nix F C and Shockley W 1938 Rev. Mod. Phys. 10 14, figure 13. Copyright (1938) by the American Physical Society.

Williams, H. J., Bozorth, R. M. Shockley, W. (1949). Magnetic domain patterns on single crystals of silicon iron. Physical Review, 75, 155-78. 

Williams, H. J., Shockley, W. Kittel, C. (1950). Studies on the propagation velocity of a ferromagnetic domain boundary. Physical Review, 80, 1090-4. 

Damaging contaminants, like proteases, should be early removed. All operations developed at laboratory scale should be judiciously analyzed for its scalability. Number of operations should be as few as possible. Use of additives should be minimized to avoid further purification steps. The famous KISS rule (keep it simple, stupid -recalling Nobel laureate William Shockley) certainly applies. 

In 1947, a device consisting of a layer of j -type silicon sandwiched between two w-type layers was constructed by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at the Bell Laboratories. This device, called the transistor, has revolutionized our world (Figure 18.8). Because the transistor can control electron flow in circuits with such accuracy, yet is so small and requires so little power to operate, it is now possible to design electronic... 

FIGURE 18.8 The transistor and its inventors, (a) The first transistor, constructed in 1947 at Bell Laboratories. Electrical contact is made at a single point and the signal is amplified as it passes through a solid semiconductor modern junction transistors amplify in a similar manner, (b) Envelope and stamp commemorating 25 years of the transistor, with portraits of its inventors, Walter Brattain, William Shockley, and John Bardeen. 

US physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain (1902-87), and William Shockley (1910-89) invent the point-contact transistor. 

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