Scale of production

Syndiotactic polypropylene first became available in the 1990s (Fina, Mitsui Toastu, Sumitomo) and more recently has been marketed by Dow. Currently this polymer is more expensive than other polypropylenes both because of catalyst costs and the small scale of production. 

The scale of production has increased rapidly in recent years and in 1980 exceeded 33 million tonnes in the USA alone though much of this is used in integrated plants, on site. 

Nitric acid is one of the three major acids of the modem chemical industiy and has been known as a corrosive solvent for metals since alchemical times in the thirteenth centuiy. " " It is now invariably made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia under conditions which promote the formation of NO rather than the thermodynamically more favoured products N2 or N2O (p. 423). The NO is then further oxidized to NO2 and the gases absorbed in water to yield a concentrated aqueous solution of the acid. The vast scale of production requires the optimization of all the reaction conditions and present-day operations are based on the intricate interaction of fundamental thermodynamics, modem catalyst technology, advanced reactor design, and chemical engineering aspects of process control (see Panel). Production in the USA alone now exceeds 7 million tonnes annually, of which the greater part is used to produce nitrates for fertilizers, explosives and other purposes (see Panel). 

The scale of production also influences efficiency. Small-scale batch processing for metals such as titanium, tungsten, and zirconium leads to higher energy use and costs. 

The necessity for interaction between biotechnologists and chemical engineers increases with the scale of production. In chemical manufacture three categories of product can be defined according to the scale of production (Table 2.2). 

Raffin, R. P., Jornada, D. S., Re, M. L, Pohimann, A. R. Guterres, S. S. (2006). Sodium pantoprazole-loaded enteric microparticles prepared by spray drying Effect of the scale of production and process validation. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, Vol. 324,1, (October 2006), pp. (10-18), ISSN 0378-5173... 

Although there is no universal consensus as to the scale of production and use of chemical substances, it is estimated that the average annual world production of such substances is in excess of 450 million tonnes. Other estimates indicate that there are currently identified over five million distinct chemical compounds, with this number increasing at the rate of over a third of a million per year. Whilst many of these compounds are clearly not in everyday commercial or industrial use, it is estimated that at least 100,000 chemical substances can be considered to be in everyday use on a substantial scale, and that this number is being added to at the rate of at least several hundred per year, in the case of substances which are produced in quantities in excess of one tonne per year. 

Scale of production also differs between the three classes of chemical products. Fine and specialty chemicals tend to be produced in volumes less than 1000 t y-1. On the other hand, commodity chemicals tend to be produced in much larger volumes than this. However, the distinction is again not so clear. Polymers are differentiated products because they are purchased on the basis of their mechanical properties, but can be produced in quantities significantly higher than 1000 ty-1. 

Because of this, when designing a process for a commodity chemical, it is usually important to keep operating costs as low as possible. The capital cost of the process will tend to be high relative to a process for fine or specialty chemicals because of the scale of production. 

In this study, heating value of dry sample and wet waste was determined with the calculation and analytic measurement. Gross heating value comparison between fossil fuel and RDF from different studies has been reported. Accordingly, heating value of wet RDF for the small or bigger scale of production process needs to be noticed. 

Polymers play an integral role in modem society. Over 150 million tonnes are made annually. The scale of production varies enormously from a 200,000 tonnes per annum continuous operational plant for commodity polymers to a batch process producing a few kilograms of a specialised polymer (advanced material). 

Depending on the scale of production, an important parameter determining the economic viability of poly(3HB) production (besides overall yield and poly(3HB) content) is productivity. Productivities of poly(3HB) production at-... 

A 25,000-pound per year production rate is not a demarcation between large and small ventures. Such a point would be at a far higher scale of production. Instead, the proposed 25,000-pound exemption represents an economically-justified and virtually risk-free means of aiding innovation in the chemical industry, particularly when coupled with appropriate chronic hazard control language as for intermediates. 

Economies of scale of production are taken into account according to the following formula, with l and I2 and C and C2, respectively, denoting the (absolute) investments and capacities of the reference plants investments typically scale according to a so-called extrapolation coefficient, which from experience is between 0.5 and 0.7 (Chauvel el al., 1976). Further, to project investments into the future, learning curve effects are considered.4... 

One of the most important electrolytic processes is the extraction of aluminum from an ore called bauxite. This ore is mainly composed of hydrated aluminum oxide, AI2O3 XH2O. (The x in the formula indicates that the number of water molecules per formula unit is variable.) In industry, the scale of production of metals is huge. The electrolytic production of aluminum is over two million tonnes per year in Canada alone. As you know from Faraday s law, the amount of a metal produced by electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity used. Therefore, the industrial extraction of aluminum and other metals by electrolysis requires vast quantities of electricity. The availability and cost of electricity greatly influence the location of industrial plants. 

By using renewable carbon from biomass, an improvement in the CO2 balance can be achieved. However, significant effects beyond the impacts on greenhouse gas emissions are possible, e.g., soil modification, eutrophication, impact on biodiversity, land requirements and water consumption. These aspects depend on different factors like feedstock type, scale of production, cultivation and land-management practices, location and downstream processing routes. The environmental implications of agriculture are sometimes difficult to assess by the LCA methodology and require further research. 

Many microorganisms represent attractive potential production systems for therapeutic proteins. They can usually be cultured in large quantities, inexpensively and in a short time, by standard methods of fermentation. Production facilities can be constructed in any world region, and the scale of production can be varied as required. 

Enquist, B.J. West, G.B. Chamov, E.L. Brown, J.H. (1999) Allometric scaling of production and life-history variation in vascular plants. Nature, 401, 907-11. 

Economies of scale of production are a significant advantage, ca. 300,000 ton/ a of lysine are produced with demand growing at 7% per year. In 1982 this was only 40,00C ton/a, and Toray (Japan) was reported to produce 10% of this via DL-df-amino-t-caprolactam. This compound is easily available to Toray. 

The price of a prodnct is obvionsly a major determinant of the demand for it by customers. The demand for the product then establishes the scale of production, i.e. the supply of the product. The relationship between the price of a product, the amount of product that a manufacturing company can profitably sell, and the amounts of product that will be bought by customers can be sununarised by means of supply and demand curves (Figure 13.9). A supply curve gives the relationship... 

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