Life-history

Aquaculturists may elect to purchase animals for stocking or maintain their own broodstock and hatchery. The decision may rest on such factors as the availabihty and cost of fry fish, post-larval fish, oyster spat, or other eady life history stages in the location selected for the aquaculture venture. 

The proper choice and appHcation of an insecticide for pest control are predicated upon factors, eg, the life history and ecology of the pest, the relation of pest population to economic damage, the effect of the insecticide on the pest or its plant or animal host, related organisms in the ecosystem, and proper timing of the appHcation to prevent illegal residues at harvest and to avoid damaging of bees and other pollinating insects. 

Where and in what form does the essential oil have its origin What alterations does it undergo during the life history of the plant How does it find its way from one part of the plant to another How can external conditions be controlled so as to vary the character of the essential oil at the will of the cultivator ... 

Throughout this book reviews have been made on products that literally are used in many different markets. This action fits the usual statement that this is the World of Plastics Important with all the cost analysis is that profits have to be included. Influencing factors that involve profits are summarized in Figs. 9-10 to 9-13. The life-history curve, Fig. 9-11, shows the basic format of a typical product cycle for an infinite number of products. It is also called a bathtub curve. 

Linhart, Y. B. and Mitton, J. B. 1979. Relationships between life history characteristics and electrophoretically detectable genetic variation in plants. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 10 173-200. 

Criteria 1) Relevance to human health endpoints. 2) Sensitivity to change in loadings. 3) Overall historical data quality. 4) Data collection infrastructure. 5) Feasibility of data collection and analysis. 6) Ability to adjust for confounding factors. 7) Understanding of linkages with rest of ecosystem. 8) Broad geographic distribution. 9) Well-known life history (for fauna). 10) Nonintrusive sampling. 

The information needed at each of these stages in the life history of the compound relates, first, to hazards involved in a specific use and, second, to the hazard to humans, not to laboratory animals. The needed information, therefore, can be gained adequately only by designing laboratory experiments with animals to cover the pertinent conditions of the specific use. Finally, this information can only be interpreted adequately by those versed in normal and abnormal human physiology and pathology. The interpretation of... 

Katzenberg, M. A. (2000), Stable isotope analysis A tool for studying past diet, demography and life history, in Katzenberg, M. A. and S. R. Saunders (eds.), Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton, Wiley-Liss, New York, pp. 305-328. 

Shipman, R. (1981), Life History of a Fossil An Introduction to Taphonomy and Palaeoe-cology, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA. 

Read, A.F. and Skorping, A. (1995a) Causes and consequences of life history variation in parasitic nematodes. In Abad, P., Burnell, A., Laumond, C., Boemare, N. and Coudert, F. (eds) Ecology and Transmission Strategies of Entomopathogenic Nematodes (COST 819). European Commission, Brussels, pp. 58-68. 

Skorping, A., Read, A.F. and Keymer, A.E. (1991) Life history covariation in intestinal nematodes of mammals. Oikos 60, 365-372. 

Taken as a whole, these observations show that parasite lines differ in an immune-dependent manner in their infection/expulsion kinetics. Furthermore, there is heritable variation in survival and fecundity in previously exposed hosts and quantitative variation in the immune response that selected parasite lines elicit. Again, taken as a whole, these observations have the necessary corollary that variation in these traits exists not only in laboratory-maintained isolates but also in helminth species in nature. The phenotypes under consideration here (infection/expulsion kinetics, survival, fecundity) are multifactorial life-history traits. Understanding the basis of variation in the components and interplay of these complex, immune-responsive phenotypes must be of crucial relevance to understanding the immunology of infections of parasitic nematodes. This is of particular relevance in view of current attempts to develop immunological methods of nematode control. 

Of the examples considered above, two are of phenotypic diversity in a life-history trait where the life-history trait under consideration is clearly a facultative phenomenon. That is, for developmental route in S. ratti and for arrested development, there are distinct, mutually exclusive developmental routes. Thus, diversity in these traits between different parasite lines is relatively easy to observe, as is the response to selection. Both these traits are, in part, affected by environmental conditions and so are phenotypically plastic. For S. ratti, variation in the sensitivity of this plasticity can also be seen. Although environmental sensitivity of arrested development is as yet uninvestigated, by analogy with S. ratti it is likely to vary. 

The third example considered the interaction of life-history traits (survival rates, fecundity, immunogenicity) with an environmental factor specific to parasites, namely the host immune system. Here phenotypic diversity in response to environmental conditions (host immunity) is not so readily apparent. To observe phenotypic diversity, different parasite lines need to be compared in their kinetics of infection and, to show immune-dependence, these must be complemented by control experiments in immunosuppressed hosts. Experiments seeking to select on this diversity... 

Schad, GA. (1989) Morphology and life history of Strongyloides stercoralis. In Grove, D.I. (ed.) Strongyloidiasis a Major Roundworm Infection of Man. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 85-104. 

Anderbrant O (1993) Pheromone biology of sawflies. In Wagner MR, Raffa KF (eds) Sawfly life history adaptations to woody plants. Academic Press, San Diego, p 119... 

Only a few studies on defined chemical defense metabolites from non-phyto-plankton organisms that spend their entire life history in the water column have been reported to date [81]. 

In this chapter, the life history of a successful drug will be outlined (summarized in Figure 4.1). 

Cid N, Ibanez C, Prat N (2008) Life history and production of the burrowing mayfly Ephoron virgo (Olivier, 1791) (Ephemeroptera Polymitarcyidae) in the lower Ebro river a comparison after 18 years. Aquatic Insects 30 163-178... 

Reish, D.J. 1977. Effects of chromium on the, life history of Capitella capitata (Annelida Polychaeta). Pages 199-207 in F.J. Vernberg, A. Calabrese, F.P. Thurberg, and W.B. Vemberg (eds.). Physiological Responses of Marine Biota to Pollutants. Academic Press, NY. 

Koivisto, S. and M. Ketola. 1995. Effects of copper on life-history traits of Daphnia pulex and Bosmina longirostris. Aquat. Toxicol. 32 255-269. 

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