Road transport/traffic

Air traffic access may be constrained by the operational aspects of the airport. Otherwise, the road-related traffic will be dealt with in a manner similar to that of seaports, except that the vehicles are likely to be smaller in size and of lower traffic volumes, reflecting the higher-value goods being transported by air. 

The surest way to make a false prediction is to assume that current trends will continue unabated. Mathematically this is known as extrapolation. It is said that the corporation of the City of London examined the trends in traffic in the city in the year 1900. The growth in road traffic had been rapid. At the time of course almost all road traffic was horse drawn, which led to problems with the disposal of manure. If the trend continued it appeared that the manure problem would grow at such a rate that by the year 1960 the city would be 6 feet under manure. Although traffic continued to grow, road transport switched to the internal combustion engine, which ended the manure problem. 

Road transport is an important contributor to primary emissions of PM (soot, wear particles and road dust) and also a source of secondary particles formed by condensation of gaseous species (mainly S- and N-compounds and organics) emitted by the tailpipe and partly also by the wear of brakes and tyres. Thus, PM emissions from road traffic are responsible for an important proportion of the exceedances of the PM10 and PM25 Air Quality Limit Values established by the European legislation for the protection of the human health (2008/50/EC [17]). The daily (50 pg m-3) and annual (40 pg m 3 ) limit values for PM10 (atmospheric particles with mean aerodynamic diameter <10 pm) and the annual limit value for PM2.5 (25 pg m-3) (in force from 2015) concentrations in ambient air are indeed exceeded mostly in the urban areas (Fig. 1 [17]). 

Loss of coastal land and population displacement Transportation Shipping Barge traffic Tundra roads Road/Rail traffic Land ice melt contribution to sea level Iceberg hazard sea ice extent, thickness Freshwater ice season Freshwater ice roads frozen ground thaw Freeze events snowfall... 

External factors affect the probability of an accident. In fixed installations (such as chemical plants, storage rooms, warehouses and reprocessing sites) natural events such as floods or extreme weather as well as, for example, power cuts may lead to an uncontrolled release of chemicals. The risk of chemical accidents during road transport depends on factors such as traffic density, road conditions and speed limits the effects depend on where an accident occurs (WHO, 1995). 

In the case of road transport it is not possible to conceive any substitute for motor vehicles. Motor vehicles are used to a huge extent for collective transport, individual transport and freight. They deteriorate the quality of the environment in cities with dense traffic. At the present time, in industrially developed countries, motor vehicles contribute more than 50%-to the amounts of anthropogenic gaseous emissions polluting the atmosphere. In certain big cities and industrial agglomerations, this contribution exceeds 90%. 

Road transportation is preferred inside a country. The main rule is to be able to carry as long and as much as possible to minimize the transportation cost. Monitoring this mode of transportation is easy. Perishable and non-perishable items may be carried. Some disadvantages are there may be delays due to traffic, some regulations may be a restriction on driving routes, might be affected by weather conditions and subject to accidents that will lead to severe damages on products. 

The conventional mode of surface transportation of fluids before the advent of CCP was by sea, rail, or road transport. These modes are still in use for petrol, diesel, LPG, and several hydrocarbons however, wherever bulk transportation on a continuous basis is required between two fixed locations, use of CCP is the most economical solution. The modes of transport other than CCP have the following limitations nonavailability of sufficient roads, rail tracks, and port-harbor facilities to take up the traffic load procedures and control involved in the transport operation (permits/licenses/OctroiAoll/ regional transport office, etc.) and logistics such as manpower requirement, maintenance, fuel cost, availability, weather and climate, pollution generated, safety, insurance, and security. 

The analysis of second order interdependencies and interdependencies further out in the chain of events or consequences can be analyzed much the same as the first order interdependencies. This means that we may reveal new location-specific interdependencies fiwm the functional interdependencies, and also events that should be further investigated, e.g., as an accident scenario itself In Figure 4, we see that the roads can be affected if there is a loss of ICT services. This is due to a possible loss of control with traffic lights, which then may cause traffic jams. In addition, no railway transport may increase the road traffic further. Hypothetical speaking, a traffic jam may cause a bridge to collapse due to overload, which may indicate location-specific interdependencies between road transport and the bridge. However, in this example, we focus on the functional interdependencies resulting fiwm the first location-specific interdependencies. 

Traffic risk is measured in terms of deaths per 10,000 registered motor vehicles or per 100 mUhon vehicle-kilometres travelled. The latter is the most relevant risk measure in road transport but unfortunately the total number of kilometres covered by vehicles is not normally available in most ASEAN countries. If the traffic risk is defined as the number of fatalities per 10,000 vehicles, several investigations show that this indicator is not enough to explain the real situation of traffic safety. This measure does not... 

Jet transport Air traffic control Maritime vessels Chemical industry Nuclear power (United States) Road transportation... 

Transportation Association of Canada. Proceedings of TAC Annual Conference. Ottawa. Covers topics such as geometric design, pavements, road maintenance, traffic control, and the environment. Published on CD. 

Despite its advantages, the transport system has an adverse effect on the environment, economy and health. Previous work describing the hazard of road transport has referred to many concepts and theories (Elvik Vaa, 2004, Jamroz, 2008). Currently, the leading theories are behavioural based on road traffic risk. Societal road traffic risk is usually measured at the strategic level with the number of fataUties, considered as the absolute measure and with the RFR as the relative or normalised measure (Jamroz 2010, 2011, 2012). 

Maximum concentration of carbon monoxide has been exceeded in one area (Lower Silesia), due to the excess concentration in the health-resort Cieplice-Zdroj (near the Jelenia Gora). It should be noted that the concentrations of the standards for health resorts are much more stringent than for other areas. As can be seen from the data shown in Figure 1 the share of road transport in total emissions of this compound is high and the value is at the level 23.15%. Due to the location of the health resort area in the neighbourhood of major road transport routes with heavy traffic the sphere of road transport can cause excess of the limit. 

From the point of view of criterion (human health) for PM air pollution in only four areas the acceptable level of concentration has not been exceeded (cities of Elblag, Koszalin, Olsztyn and Zielona Gora). In other cities, and in all voivodships permissible concentration has been exceeded. As can be seen from the data shown in Figure 2 share of road transport in total emissions of particulate matter PM q fraction is at the level 10.36%. It can be concluded that one of the reasons for exceeding the limit value can thus be heavy traffic, especially in cities and towns over 100 thousand inhabitants. This reason is not dominant because the engines of new cars must comply with ever higher emission standards Euro. 

The European road network has a vital importance for the European economy. Even smaller disruptions due to traffic restrictions or failure of some elements of the network may result in high consequences, Imam Chryssanthopoulos (2012). Due to the interdependence of the road transport network with rail, air and shipping traffic, a failure of important connections may yield a domino effect, Andersen et al. (2013). 

Bernard Jacob, chair of the Programme Committee of TRA2014, is deputy scientific director for transport, infrastructures and safety with IFSTTAR. His research works are in bridge and road safety, traffic loads on bridges, heavy vehicles and weigh-in-motion. He is Professor at Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de I Etat in France, and President of the International Society for WIM (ISWIM). 

Moreover, slow-moving and stationary traffic emits increased amounts of COg and other pollutants. The transport sector already contributes around a quarter of the UK s COg emissions of which 93 per cent is from road transport. 

In road transportation, the driver controls large amounts of energy. From elementary physics we know that there is a linear increase in the kinetic energy with the weight of the vehicle and a quadratic increase with its velocity. These basic facts show up in the accident statistics. In Norway, traffic accidents account for about a third of the fatalities at work (see Section 5.4). Traffic accidents in general constitute a significant public-health problem. Swedish estimates show that out of 100 inhabitants born in 1956, about fifty will be injured in a traffic accident and about one will die from it (England et ai, 1998). Traffic accidents reduce the expected lifespan by half a year. 

I have also been dependent on many people for source input to the book. I have used examples from the project work of my students at NTNU. Here I especially want to mention Gro Blindheim, Borge Godhavn, Bjornar Andre Haug, Jorn Lindtvedt, Vidar Tuven and Elisabeth Wendel. Karsten Boe at Norsk Hydro has been my discussion partner in the area of risk acceptance criteria. Bengt Elf at ASG Road Transport, Lennart Svensson at Volvo Lastvagnar AB and Thomas Lekander at the Swedish National Road Administration have helped me with input to the chapter on traffic safety. 

The effectiveness, safety, and reliability of railway and motor vehicles operations depend on factors such as traffic rules, equipment reliability and safety, general and safety management, and human factors. Each year, a large number of railway and motor-vehicle accidents result in many fatalities and a high economic cost due to human factors-related problems around the world [3-5]. Human error in rail and road transportation systems has become an increasingly important issue. 

How should we measure traffic safety It all depends upon your view of where traffic safety sits in the bigger scheme of things. If you think disabling injury and death are, in the terms favoured by economists, negative externalities of road transport—the unintended but unavoidable downside of an essential system—then you will almost certainly focus on rates, not on the actual numbers. 

---