Refinery requirements

A one-hour sampling period is generally required for this method. Samphng periods are specified by the apphcable standard e.g., standards for petroleum refineries require sampling for one hour or more. 

Chemical and hazardous materials industry infrastructure includes substantial facility and equipment investment it is highly capital intensive. Most chemical industry facilities contain very specialized process equipment that would be difficult to replace quickly. A good example is an oil refinery plant, where if the cracking facilities were destroyed they could not be replaced anytime soon. It is interesting to note that some chemical industry facilities (e.g., oil refineries) require large amounts of land (have a large footprint) but are typically staffed with few employees relative to on-site land requirements. 

What about the future Like many other industries, catalyst manufacturers are dependent on refinery requirements and crude oil availability. Although crude oil supplies may become limited and catalyst usage reduced, rare earth usage in cracking catalyst may be unaffected. This is because crudes that are likely to be processed are expected to be more difficult to crack requiring higher stability and activity and thus more rare earth exchanged zeolite pef unit of catalyst. 

The next problem is investment. To build a refinery requires a massive investment of capital. In the past, refinery profits have been sporadic and profit margins have often been low. The prospect of low or no profits doesn t encourage investment. However, today s environment of high demand and tight supply points to steady profitability. However, that profitability is compromised when some refiners don t produce enough of their own crude oil to refine and must buy it at widely fluctuating prices. 

Thus process units in a refinery require analytical test methods that can adequately evaluate feedstocks and monitor product quality. In addition, the high sulfur content of petroleum and regulations limiting the maximum sulfur content of fuels makes sulfur removal a priority in refinery processing. Here again, analytical methodology is key to the successful determination of the sulfur compound types present and their subsequent removal. 

Since most of the petrochemicals from the petrochemical refinery scheme have values in the U.S. which are so intimately involved with premium fuel values and have price trends which are buffered by fuel refinery requirements and economics, the petrochemical refinery must be considered in an oil industry context. 

Reay, D. W., "Vacuum Distillation of Heavy Residues—Meeting Changing Refinery Requirements, I. Chem. E. Symp. Ser. 73, 1982, p. D51. 

Of course, some processes do not require a reactor, e.g., some oil refinery processes. Here, the design starts with the sepauration system and moves outward to the heat exchanger network and utilities. However, the basic hierarchy prevails. 

In Appendix 1, the reader will find the data required to calculate the properties of the most common hydrocarbons as well as those components that most frequently accompany them in refinery process streams. The data are grouped in seven categories ( ... 

This category comprises conventional LPG (commercial propane and butane), home-heating oil and heavy fuels. All these materials are used to produce thermal energy in equipment whose size varies widely from small heaters or gas stoves to refinery furnaces. Without describing the requirements in detail for each combustion system, we will give the main specifications for each of the different petroleum fuels. 

Simple conventional refining is based essentially on atmospheric distillation. The residue from the distillation constitutes heavy fuel, the quantity and qualities of which are mainly determined by the crude feedstock available without many ways to improve it. Manufacture of products like asphalt and lubricant bases requires supplementary operations, in particular separation operations and is possible only with a relatively narrow selection of crudes (crudes for lube oils, crudes for asphalts). The distillates are not normally directly usable processing must be done to improve them, either mild treatment such as hydrodesulfurization of middle distillates at low pressure, or deep treatment usually with partial conversion such as catalytic reforming. The conventional refinery thereby has rather limited flexibility and makes products the quality of which is closely linked to the nature of the crude oil used. 

To allow objectivity of the findings, ElA s are usually carried out by independent specialists or organisations. It will involve not only scientific experts, but also require consultation with official and representative bodies such as the government ministries for the environment, fisheries, food, agriculture, and local water authorities. In activities which may impact on local population (terminals, refineries, access roads, land developments) local representatives of the inhabitants may be consulted, and the public affairs function... 

Each refiner has the flexibiUty to choose the specific formulation to produce based on the economics of the individual refineries. REG meeting the statutory requirements must be sold in the nine areas of the country which have the worst ozone (qv) problem. In addition, all other areas of the country which exceed the ozone NAAQS may elect the REG regulations, and EPA has estimated that 40% of the nation s gasoline should be subject to REG rules (66). 

Refinery hydrogen requirement is met either by direct manufacture or indirect by-product recovery. Manufacture is typically by steam methane... 

Electrolytic Eefming. Electrolytic refining (26,27), used by Cominco Ltd. (Trad, B.C., Canada) and Cerro de Pasco Corp. (La Oroya, Pern), as weU as by several refineries in Europe and Japan, removes impurities in one step as slimes. The impurities must then be separated and purified. Before the development of the Betterton-KroU process, electrolytic refining was the only practical method of reducing bismuth to the required concentrations. 

Phenols. The first stable ozone oxidation product of phenol in water is ds ds-raucomc acid, which requires - 2 mol O /mol phenol. In practice, larger dosage levels of ozone are required because other ozone-reactive substances are present in most wastes. Ozone oxidation of phenoHc effluents is employed in paper mills, coke mills, oil refineries, and thermoplastic resin manufacture, producing effluents that are safe to freshwater biota (122,123) (see Lignin Pulp). 

The hydrocarbon cracking operations that generate feed olefins generally do not produce sufficient isobutane to satisfy the reaction requirements. Additional isobutane must be recovered from cmde oil or natural gas Hquids or generated by other refinery operations. A growing quantity of isobutane is produced by the isomerization of / -butane [106-97-8]. 

The indirect hydration, also called the sulfuric acid process, practiced by the three U.S. domestic producers, was the only process used worldwide until ICI started up the first commercial direct hydration process in 1951. Both processes use propylene and water as raw materials. Early problems of high corrosion, high energy costs, and air pollution using the indirect process led to the development of the direct hydration process in Europe. However, a high purity propylene feedstock is required. In the indirect hydration process, C -feedstock streams from refinery off-gases containing only 40—60 wt % propylene are often used in the United States. 

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