Provenness

The purchaser of any nuclear power plant will require high station availability/performance from the start of operation as the plant is capital intensive, but with low operating costs. Economic considerations therefore necessitate operation at a high capacity factor. 

In the case of an SMPR it is in addition necessary to consider that it is likely to be purchased by a relatively small or developing country or utility, and to be the first nuclear unit. Such countries or utilities are unlikely to have the qualified manpower and other infrastructures necessary to resolve major or frequent station performance problems. 

The concept of provenness is therefore important the performance and availability of the nuclear power plant, particularly during the early years of operation, can be expected to be related to the degree of its provenness . 

In general, it is the performance of a number of key components (Including fuel, primary pumps, control devices, steam generators, and reactor vessel or pressure tubes) that dictates the performance of the nuclear steam supply system. Except for fuel, malfunction of these key components inevitably leads to a unit outage, and repair or replacemnt is difficult, time consuming and costly. Fuel failures also pose operating problems, particularly for reactors that are fuelled off power. 

Commercial nuclear power plant operating experience over the past decade, as reflected in the IAEA Power Reactor Information System, has demonstrated that new designs or design modification of the above components or modifications in system designs have to be introduced with the greatest of care. 

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Because of their diversity and complexity as well as the gradual internationalization of the different standards, it has proven necessary to standardize the methods of sample preservation, handling, fractionation, and analysis throughout the chain of separation and treatment. All these stages are the object of precise protocols established by official national and international organizations. They describe in as minute detail as possible the procedures employed not only for each analysis but very often giving different procedures for the same analysis in different matrices. These are the standards or standardized methods discussed in Chapter 7. 

Drilling Jackets are small steel platform structures which are used in areas of shallow and calm water. A number of wells may be drilled from one jacket. If a jacket is too small to accommodate a drilling operation, a jack-up rig (see below) is usually cantilevered over the jacket and the operation carried out from there. Once a viable development has been proven It is extremely cost effective to build and operate jackets in a shallow... 

An alternative and commonly used representation of the range of reserves is the proven, proven plus probable, and proven plus probable plus possible definition. The exact cumulative probability which these definitions correspond to on the expectation curve... 

The annual reporting requirements to the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) legally oblige listed oil companies to state their proven reserves. 

LNG plants require very high initial investments in the order of several billion dollars, and are therefore only viable in cases were large volumes of reserves (typically 10 Bscf) have been proven. 

By providing more accurate monitoring and control of the production operations, CAO is now proven to provide benefits such as ... 

So far, the economics of developing discovered fields has been discussed, and the sensitivity analysis introduced was concerned with variations in parameters such as reserves, capex, opex, oil price, and project timing. In these cases the risk of there being no hydrocarbon reserves was not mentioned, since it was assumed that a discovery had been made, and that there was at least some minimum amount of recoverable reserves (called proven reserves). This section will briefly consider how exploration prospects are economically evaluated. 

The only meaningful solution is a pneumatic test in conjunction with an AE. Beside the high sensitivity of an AE and its reliability in combination with an established and proven data base, the method can be performed by experienced testing agencies easily and within short shut down period. A lot of 4 up to 9 drums can be tested within one day. 

A novel approach for suppression of material noise in ultrasonic signals, based on noncoherent detector statistics and signal entropy, has been presented. Experimental evaluation of the technique, using ultrasonic images from samples with coarse material structure, has proven its high performance. 

The system has proven to be a powerful tool for inspections in the Nuclear industry with the potential of reducing the radiation doses for a highly qualified group of personnel and at the same time ensure a high quality and reproducibility of testing... 

This RCCA inspection methods has now already proven it s reliability as an industrial solution on two Belgian power plants (Doel 3 and Tihange 1). Thanks to the graphical programming language, each site feedback is immediately injected. This way of working ensures a permanent improvement of the analysis system, and a reduction in manpower for the analysis. 

At an early stage of the development of the Inspection Management approach it was recognised that the currently employed commercial arrangements would not be appropriate for the long term commitments envisaged (ref 3). At that time contracts were largely time and materials or reimbursable, which experience had proven in many circumstances to be adversarial by there very nature At its crudest, the objective of the... 

The methodology and the pigging tool have proven to be capable of identifying very small leaks. In oil pipelines like the Danish carrying 1500 m /h leakages down to 1 litre per hour can be detected without injection of large quantities of tracer. Leakages can be positioned with an accuracy of less than 1 metre. 

C. L. Thomas, Catalytic Processes arui Proven Catalysts, Academic, New York, 1970. 

While not unique, the Scluodinger picture of quantum mechanics is the most familiar to chemists principally because it has proven to be the simplest to use in practical calculations. Hence, the remainder of this section will focus on the Schrodinger fomuilation and its associated wavefiinctions, operators and eigenvalues. Moreover, effects associated with the special theory of relativity (which include spin) will be ignored in this subsection. Treatments of alternative fomuilations of quantum mechanics and discussions of relativistic effects can be found in the reading list that accompanies this chapter. 

This so-called complex mechanism has occasionally been proven to apply [25, 26],... 

The resulting rate law agrees with the fonn found experimentally. Of course the postidated mechanism can only be proven by measuring the rate constants of the individual elementary steps separately and comparing calculated rates of equation (A3.4.148) with observed rates of HBr fomiation. 

In essence, a guided-ion beam is a double mass spectrometer. Figure A3.5.9 shows a schematic diagram of a griided-ion beam apparatus [104]. Ions are created and extracted from an ion source. Many types of source have been used and the choice depends upon the application. Combining a flow tube such as that described in this chapter has proven to be versatile and it ensures the ions are thennalized [105]. After extraction, the ions are mass selected. Many types of mass spectrometer can be used a Wien ExB filter is shown. The ions are then injected into an octopole ion trap. The octopole consists of eight parallel rods arranged on a circle. An RF... 

Several instniments have been developed for measuring kinetics at temperatures below that of liquid nitrogen [81]. Liquid helium cooled drift tubes and ion traps have been employed, but this apparatus is of limited use since most gases freeze at temperatures below about 80 K. Molecules can be maintained in the gas phase at low temperatures in a free jet expansion. The CRESU apparatus (acronym for the French translation of reaction kinetics at supersonic conditions) uses a Laval nozzle expansion to obtain temperatures of 8-160 K. The merged ion beam and molecular beam apparatus are described above. These teclmiques have provided important infonnation on reactions pertinent to interstellar-cloud chemistry as well as the temperature dependence of reactions in a regime not otherwise accessible. In particular, infonnation on ion-molecule collision rates as a ftmction of temperature has proven valuable m refining theoretical calculations. 

It is important to recognize that the time-dependent behaviour of tire correlation fimction during the molecular transient time seen in figure A3.8.2 has an important origin [7, 8]. This behaviour is due to trajectories that recross the transition state and, hence, it can be proven [7] that the classical TST approximation to the rate constant is obtained from A3.8.2 in the t —> 0 limit ... 

A completely difierent approach to scattering involves writing down an expression that can be used to obtain S directly from the wavefunction, and which is stationary with respect to small errors in die waveftmction. In this case one can obtain the scattering matrix element by variational theory. A recent review of this topic has been given by Miller [32]. There are many different expressions that give S as a ftmctional of the wavefunction and, therefore, there are many different variational theories. This section describes the Kohn variational theory, which has proven particularly useftil in many applications in chemical reaction dynamics. To keep the derivation as simple as possible, we restrict our consideration to potentials of die type plotted in figure A3.11.1(c) where the waveftmcfton vanishes in the limit of v -oo, and where the Smatrix is a scalar property so we can drop the matrix notation. 

STM found one of its earliest applications as a tool for probing the atomic-level structure of semiconductors. In 1983, the 7x7 reconstructed surface of Si(l 11) was observed for the first time [17] in real space all previous observations had been carried out using diffraction methods, the 7x7 structure having, in fact, only been hypothesized. By capitalizing on the spectroscopic capabilities of the technique it was also proven [18] that STM could be used to probe the electronic structure of this surface (figure B1.19.3). 

There are a few other surface-sensitive characterization techniques that also rely on the use of lasers. For instance surface-plasmon resonance (SPR) measurements have been used to follow changes in surface optical properties as a fiinction of time as the sample is modified by, for instance, adsorption processes [ ]. SPR has proven usefiil to image adsorption patterns on surfaces as well [59]. 

The mean-field potentials that have proven most useful are all one-electron additive (r) = 2. (Tj). 

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