Production Options

Furthermore, off-peak electricity is only cheap when demand for it is low increased demand for hydrogen production would increase the price of elecfricity. 

Another method of production, widely used by refineries, is partial oxidation of hydrocarbons such as crude oil or natural gas. The basic process requires temperatures of 1200-1450°C and pure oxygen. Most of the hydrogen produced in this manner currently is used by the refiners themselves for treating heavier grades of petroleum. 

---

L. A. Muir, iu National Research Council, Designing Foods Animal Product Options in the Markeplace, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1988, pp. 184-193. 

Dahodwalla, H. and Herat, S., Cleaner production options for lead-acid manufacturing industry, Journal of Cleaner Production, 8, 133-142, 2000. 

For the first decades, all roadmaps show a focus on fossil-based hydrogen production options, mainly onsite and decentral steam methane reformers (SMR), electro-lysers and hydrogen as a by-product from the chemical industry. In some regions, hydrogen is also produced to a certain extend by nuclear, electrolysis, biomass and waste gasification. Later on, with a significant increase of hydrogen, the production... 

Today s rapidly increasing activities on hydrogen focus mostly on vehicle applications and less on stationary applications. For fuel cells, stationary applications are also relevant, but natural gas will be the dominant fuel here. The dominance of the transport sector is also reflected in the hydrogen roadmaps developed, among others, in the EU, the USA, Japan, or at an international level. Whereas in the beginning, onsite or decentralised production options based on fossil fuels or electricity are seen as the major option for hydrogen production, later on central production options will dominate the market. Here, several options could play a role, from coal, with carbon capture and sequestration, through natural gas and renewables (wind, biomass) to nuclear. A C02-free or lean vision can be identified in every roadmap. The cost... 

Figure 10.1. Hydrogen production options by energy source (Nitsch, 2002 Pehnt, 2001).

The fossil hydrogen production option dominates during the first two decades while the infrastructure is being developed, and also in later periods if only economic criteria are applied initially on the basis of natural gas, later with increasing gas prices more and more on the basis of coal (where available). Carbon capture and storage will be critical for these pathways, if hydrogen is to contribute to an overall C02 reduction in the transport sector. The production mix between gas and coal is highly sensitive to the ratio of feedstock prices a switch occurs at a gas coal price ratio of about 2.5. 

For the economic evaluation, this price is compared with the costs of cheaper hydrogen production options, like natural gas reforming. With an operating time of 6750 h and a natural gas price of 2.35 ct/kWh, hydrogen costs are at 5.3 ct/kWh. This is much lower than the surplus wind pathway, if an electricity price of 4 ct/kWh is assumed. Further calculations have been performed, to show at what natural gas price natural gas reforming would reach hydrogen costs from surplus wind electricity the hydrogen price of surplus wind electricity is only reached at a natural gas price of 5.5 ct/kWh. If a carbon tax of 20/t is introduced, the necessary natural gas price is 5 ct/kWh (compare Fig. 16.10). 

Once the application performance and degradation requirements are understood, the next step is to review available information or conduct tests to screen product options to determine the most likely products that will meet application expectations. Weathering, aging and durability testing of polymers have been used extensively for years to qualify durable polymers for specific applications. Since the mid 1980s, new standard tests have been developed for degradable polymers [2],... 

HYWAYS in-depth techno-socio-economic analysis of hydrogen production options. 

Gulati, M., et al. Assessment of Ethanol Production Options for Com Products, Bioresource Technology, 58, 253-264 (1996). 

Figure 7 S-lbuprofen production options ultrafiltration (left) and a membrane reactor (right).

Economic evaluation of different technology and production options... 

Battershill, C. N., Pomponi, S. A., Willoughby, R., Northcote, L., McClean M. L., Munro, M. H. G., Blunt, J. W., and Garson, M. J., Sponge cells or symbionts The site of biosynthesis of biologically active metabolites in two species of sponges and the feasibility of cell culture as a production option, in 9th International Symposium on Marine Natural Products, 1998, Symposium Proc., Tonnville, Australia. 

Customer visits. Especially by technical service personnel, but increasingly by directly involving R D staff with the customer. The danger with this information is that the customer is often only interested in the immediate problems not with what can be supplied some years down the line. The data needs to be sifted intelligently to sort out the local difficulties from what are inherent problems, amenable to R D work rather than standard technical support A prerequisite, for all personnel who make customer visits, is the need to produce well written visit reports, with the additional requirement to report on new product options. 

For single separation duty, Diwekar et al. (1989) considered the multiperiod optimisation problem and for each individual mixture selected the column size (number of plates) and the optimal amounts of each fraction by maximising a profit function, with a predefined conventional reflux policy. For multicomponent mixtures, both single and multiple product options were considered. The authors used a simple model with the assumptions of equimolal overflow, constant relative volatility and negligible column holdup, then applied an extended shortcut method commonly used for continuous distillation and based on the assumption that the batch distillation column can be considered as a continuous column with changing feed (see Type II model in Chapter 4). In other words, the bottom product of one time step forms the feed of the next time step. The pseudo-continuous distillation model thus obtained was then solved using a modified Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland method (see Type II model in Chapter 4) with no plate-to-plate calculations. The... 

A variation on IGCC operation is to combine power generation with chemicals or fuels production, the so-called co-production option. In this operating mode, part of the syngas produced by the gasifier is used for power production and part is sent to a Fischer-Tropsch,25 methanol, or similar facility for fuels/... 

G-3 Nuclear Reactor Options and Their Power Cycle Efficiency, 210 G-4 An Overview of Nuclear Hydrogen Production Options, 211 G-5 Capital Costs of Current Electrolysis Fueler Producing 480 Kilograms of Hydrogen per Day, 221... 

TABLE 8-1 An Overview of Nuclear Hydrogen Production Options... 

Holt, N. 2003. Hydrogen Production Options. Paper presented at Hydrogen-Electric Economy Workshop, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, Calif., July 17-18. 

Companies will normally provide their customers with a wide and diverse selection of custom-formulated products. In addition, companies also have the ability to formulate new products for new resins or new consumer product applications. Because customers may select from more than 2000 different products that have already been formulated, the diversity of product options requires that direct sales to the customer be practiced in response to specific product orders. It would be impractical, if not impossible, to maintain the immense inventory that would be required to offer a distributorship-type operation. Conversely, compounders who produce a limited number of bulk products may effectively use a distributorship system to provide customers with their product. 

---