Product development that process

The approaches and strategies presented in this chapter are intended to overcome these issues for CE methods. Recendy a more advanced approach toward chromatographic method development was introduced in pharmaceutical product development that also is beneficial for CE methods. In the advanced approach (i) the voice of the customer is captured, (ii) key process input variables are identified, (iii) critical to quality (CTQ) factors are determined, (iv) several method verification tests are installed, (v) proactive evaluation of method performance during development is performed, (vi) continuous customer involvement and focus is institutionalized, and (vii) method capability assessment (suitability to be applied for release testing against specification limits) is established. 

Costs. It has been established that chemical firms are allocating R D resources to solve environmental protection problems. Even though this research may be highly desirable from a societal posture, it does represent a diversion of R D resources from traditional goals of product development and process improvement. This diversion represents "opportunity costs" or the loss that the firms sustain by foregoing the benefits that are provided by traditional research projects. 

Section 103 of the Act requires that an invention described in a patent application must not have been obvious at the time the invention was made to a person having ordinary skill in the art to which [the] subject matter pertains. The fact that a companjr s experts may think that a new substance or process is highly novel does not necessarily exclude the possibility that the substance or products may not be obvious . The Patent and Trademark Office, and courts in potential infringement suits, assume an encyclopedic awareness of technical literature and product developments that no individual expert may have. The courts and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, in determining whether an invention is obvious, first establish the scope of the prior art, then the differences between the prior art and the patent claim, and finally the level of ordinary skill in the art. Graham v. John Deere Co., 383 U.S. 1 (1966). 

In addition, mass customization can also improve inventory and supply chain management efficiency. As mass customization is a make-to-order process, usually products are only made when the purchase order is placed. Thus, the shift from made-to-stock to made-to-order can significantly improve the production and supply scheduling and reduce the inventory cost and the risks of investment in materials and product development that will not encounter the preference of consumers. Furthermore, mass customization can be conducted online in some cases, so that many providers even sell shoes completely online without any physical stores, such as Zappos. This strategy can further reduce the operation and rental costs by online direct channel sales and increase the profit margin rate (Tseng et al. 2003). Even for those providers still with physical stores, they no longer have to show a full inventory of selection in all stores. 

The SEP provides a focused approach for product development that attempts to balance all factors associated with product life cycle viability and competitiveness in a global marketplace. This process provides a structured approach for considering alternative design and configurations. Figure A. 1 provides a view of the SEP and its role within enterprise and external environments to establish a system design associated with a product offering. 

As our knowledge grows, we will undoubtedly find further uses for microbes and an even better understanding of how they can contribute to new product development and process design. What is certain is that they will continue to both challenge and reward us. 

Five to ten years ago, these materials were still in the incubation period of development. Since that time, polymer research and system commercialization have progressed significantly. Desired weight benefits provided the primary impetus for producing cost-effective raw materials and developing qualified processes to ensure eventual production development. That development is now under way on flight-critical composite components in high-rate production. 

The process worked, and it solved many serious problems, but there was little demand for it. In fact, there was serious public resistance to the idea. Along with irradiated wood flooring, it demonstrated how product development that is driven by technological innovation more than market demand can be a sinkhole for investment. CPD s new product successes, such as Gammacells and industrial irradiators, were in the medical field, where it had a better handle on customers needs. In this area a disposition to accept technical innovation on the basis of experimental proof prevailed over the general public s apprehensions about nuclear technology. 

In the United States, most Class III and new devices that are not substantially equivalent to a legally marketed product that does not need a PM A application require clearance through the PMA or Product Development Protocol processes. Most Class II and some Class I devices require a premarket entry notification known as the 510(k), which is essentially an information package for the FDA that receives less stringent review than the PMA process. The 510(k) submission must demonstrate how the proposed medical device is substantially equivalent to a medical device that is already on the US market. Most Class I and some Class II (low-risk) devices are exempt from 510(k) submission before sale, but are stiU subject to general control requirements. 

The basic condition of the Standard application - the availability of stable coupled probabilistic or the multiple probabilistic relations between then controlled quality indexes and magnetic characteristics of steel. All the probabilistic estimates, used in the Standard, are applied at confidence level not less than 0,95. General requirements to the means of control and procedure of its performance are also stipulated. Engineers of standard development endeavoured take into consideration the existed practice of technical control performance and test at the enterprises that is why the preparation of object control for the performance of nondestructive test can be done during the process of ordinary acceptance test. It is suggested that every enterprise is operated in correspondence with direct and non-destructive tests, obtained exactly at it, for detailed process chart and definite product type, however the tests have long since been performed after development of the Standard displayed that process gives way to unification. 

Dimerization in concentrated sulfuric acid occurs mainly with those alkenes that form tertiary carbocations In some cases reaction conditions can be developed that favor the formation of higher molecular weight polymers Because these reactions proceed by way of carbocation intermediates the process is referred to as cationic polymerization We made special mention m Section 5 1 of the enormous volume of ethylene and propene production in the petrochemical industry The accompanying box summarizes the principal uses of these alkenes Most of the ethylene is converted to polyethylene, a high molecular weight polymer of ethylene Polyethylene cannot be prepared by cationic polymerization but is the simplest example of a polymer that is produced on a large scale by free radical polymerization... 

Even ia 1960 a catalytic route was considered the answer to the pollution problem and the by-product sulfate, but nearly ten years elapsed before a process was developed that could be used commercially. Some of the eadier attempts iacluded hydrolysis of acrylonitrile on a sulfonic acid ion-exchange resia (69). Manganese dioxide showed some catalytic activity (70), and copper ions present ia two different valence states were described as catalyticaHy active (71), but copper metal by itself was not active. A variety of catalysts, such as Umshibara or I Jllmann copper and nickel, were used for the hydrolysis of aromatic nitriles, but aUphatic nitriles did not react usiag these catalysts (72). Beginning ia 1971 a series of patents were issued to The Dow Chemical Company (73) describiag the use of copper metal catalysis. Full-scale production was achieved the same year. A solution of acrylonitrile ia water was passed over a fixed bed of copper catalyst at 85°C, which produced a solution of acrylamide ia water with very high conversions and selectivities to acrylamide. 

It has been known since the early 1950s that butadiene reacts with CO to form aldehydes and ketones that could be treated further to give adipic acid (131). Processes for producing adipic acid from butadiene and carbon monoxide [630-08-0] have been explored since around 1970 by a number of companies, especially ARCO, Asahi, BASF, British Petroleum, Du Pont, Monsanto, and Shell. BASF has developed a process sufficiendy advanced to consider commercialization (132). There are two main variations, one a carboalkoxylation and the other a hydrocarboxylation. These differ in whether an alcohol, such as methanol [67-56-1is used to produce intermediate pentenoates (133), or water is used for the production of intermediate pentenoic acids (134). The former is a two-step process which uses high pressure, >31 MPa (306 atm), and moderate temperatures (100—150°C) (132—135). Butadiene,... 

Rhodium Ca.ta.lysts. Rhodium carbonyl catalysts for olefin hydroformylation are more active than cobalt carbonyls and can be appHed at lower temperatures and pressures (14). Rhodium hydrocarbonyl [75506-18-2] HRh(CO)4, results in lower -butyraldehyde [123-72-8] to isobutyraldehyde [78-84-2] ratios from propylene [115-07-17, C H, than does cobalt hydrocarbonyl, ie, 50/50 vs 80/20. Ligand-modified rhodium catalysts, HRh(CO)2L2 or HRh(CO)L2, afford /iso-ratios as high as 92/8 the ligand is generally a tertiary phosphine. The rhodium catalyst process was developed joindy by Union Carbide Chemicals, Johnson-Matthey, and Davy Powergas and has been Hcensed to several companies. It is particulady suited to propylene conversion to -butyraldehyde for 2-ethylhexanol production in that by-product isobutyraldehyde is minimized. 

Sasol produces synthetic fuels and chemicals from coal-derived synthesis gas. Two significant variations of this technology have been commercialized, and new process variations are continually under development. Sasol One used both the fixed-bed (Arge) process, operated at about 240°C, as weU as a circulating fluidized-bed (Synthol) system operating at 340°C. Each ET reactor type has a characteristic product distribution that includes coproducts isolated for use in the chemical industry. Paraffin wax is one of the principal coproducts of the low temperature Arge process. Alcohols, ketones, and lower paraffins are among the valuable coproducts obtained from the Synthol process. 

Dimethyl Ether. Synthesis gas conversion to methanol is limited by equiUbrium. One way to increase conversion of synthesis gas is to remove product methanol from the equiUbrium as it is formed. Air Products and others have developed a process that accomplishes this objective by dehydration of methanol to dimethyl ether [115-10-6]. Testing by Air Products at the pilot faciUty in LaPorte has demonstrated a 40% improvement in conversion. The reaction is similar to the Hquid-phase methanol process except that a soHd acid dehydration catalyst is added to the copper-based methanol catalyst slurried in an inert hydrocarbon Hquid (26). 

A newer concept has been developed that is given the name mild gasification (33). It is not a gasification process in the tme sense of the word. The process temperature is some several hundred degrees lower, hence the term mild, than the usual gasification process temperature and the objective is not to produce a gaseous fuel but to produce a high value char (carbon) and Hquid products. Gas is produced, but to a lesser extent. 

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