Low-volume production

Economic Aspects. The potassium, lithium, and ammonium borates are low volume products. Annual production figures are ia the range of hundreds of metric tons. Prices of these borates duting 1985 and 1990 are given ia Table 16. 

These cutting operations are usually used only for machined prototypes, or very low volume production of simple shapes. High speed routing is sometimes used for slotting or gate removal on injection molded products. Standard end mills (two-flute), cir-... 

Interesting features of this process include the potential for one-stage methanation to completion without the need for gas recycle. This feature was cited by Chem Systems, but, according to Rheinpruessen-Koppers work on the Fischer-Tropsch (52, 53), gas recycle was necessary with high H2 CO ratios. Drawbacks include such factors as catalyst attrition (48, 50), and low volume productivities of the methanator (less than one-tenth that reported for fixed bed adiabatic reactors) (48, 50, 52, 53, 61). 

Most microchannel work to date has focused on low-volume production of specialty and fine chemicals. However, a few pioneering firms and research... 

For materials that are produced in bulk quantities such as cement, mineral acids, and fertilisers, where the cost of the product per tonne is relatively low and the cost of transport a significant fraction of the sales price, the plant should be located close to the primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume production, high-priced products such as pharmaceuticals. 

Spinning Cup Atomization (RSC) <10-300 Standard deviation 1.5-1.7 Sn, Pb, Al, Cu, Zn alloys, Stainless and High speed tool steels, Superalloys 105-106 — 0.5-1.4x 10 3 Fine, clean, spherical particles, Narrow size distribution Small facility Relatively low volume productivity... 

Laser Spin Atomization -100 Ni-Al-Mo, Ti-6A1-4V 105 — — Spherical, homogeneo us, clem particles Low volume productivity, Poor EE, Cost... 

Vibrating Electrode Atomization (VEP) 300-500 Mild steel, Cr-Ni steel, Cu-Ni alloy, W — -0.2 — Spherical, high-purity particles, Simple Low volume productivity... 

Ultrasonic Atomization 30-50 USWA >100 Medium size distribution Solder materials, Welding electrodes, Ag-, Cu-base alloys, Dispersion-hardened allovs USWA 107 0.02-0.8 Low Spherical high quality particles, Low cost, Small unit, High EE Low volume productivity... 

Vibrating- Orifice Atomization 103-104 Standard deviation <1.05 Ca, Zn, Al Low Very low Low Very narrow size distribution, High EE Coarse particles,Very low volume productivity... 

Electro- Magnetic Atomization 600-850 Narrow size distribution Sn, Pb — 0.05- 0.12 Low Narrow size distribution Low volume productivity... 

A number of the major automakers have stated their intention to begin selling - or expanding sales of - fuel cell passenger vehicles. Toyota plans to offer about 20 hybrid fuel cell SUVs based on its Highlander platform. Nissan has announced plans to start selling a fuel cell vehicle, and Ford Motor Company said it would offer a fuel cell version of the Focus in low-volume production for small fleet operations. Other FCVs include the CM Opel HydroCen 3, the Hyundai Santa Fe FCEV, and the Nissan Xterra FCV, the DaimlerChrysler Necar 5, and Daihatsu s Move FCV-K-2. 

The choice of clamping system is very much dependent on the rate of production. Conventional threaded bolts are the simplest choice, but they may also be the most cost efficient for low volume production with cycle times in the range of hours. On the other hand, for high-volume production mold closing as well as mold opening must be achieved much quicker, and the choice may be a hydraulically driven mold carrier. 

Four decades of experience with different CDs has provided a general pricing history (Fig. 2) that should be expected for the introduction of a totally new pharmaceutical excipient. The price is high initially due to a combination of factors involving low volume productions, the cost of cGMP manufacturing standards expected by the... 

Relatively low-volume products compared with other industry segments. 

The maintenance requirements of E85 vehicles should be essentially the same as for M85 vehicles, and very similar to their conventional petroleum fuel vehicle counterparts. The oil specified for E85 vehicles has a special additive package and is currently expensive (approximately 3.00 per quart) because of low volume production. In high volume production E85 engine oil should be no more expensive than gasoline engine oil. 

In a perfect world—one with unlimited resources—all validation is performed prospectively three trials are performed and the results are reviewed and approved before commercial use of the process or system. In actuality, there are numerous instances in which concurrent approaches must be adopted, including preparation of clinical supplies, manufacture of orphan and expensive drugs, manufacture of low-volume products, and minor process changes to established products. For reliable processes, there is actually little difference between prospective and concurrent approaches. The results of the validation exercise, whether available from three batches produced over a longer period of time or closely spaced, should be the same if the underlying process is in a state of control (recalling that validation is merely a means of keeping score). 

Similarly to oil-based refineries, where many energy and chemical products are produced from crude oil, biorefineries will produce many different industrial products from biomass. These will include low-value, high-volume products, such as transportation fuels (e.g. biodiesel, bioethanol), commodity chemicals, as well as materials, and high-value, low-volume products or speciality chemicals, such as cosmetics or nutraceuticals. Energy is the driver for developments in this area, but as biorefineries become more and more sophisticated with time, other products will be developed. In some types of biorefinery, food and feed production may well also be incorporated. 

Brushes, simple rollers, syringes, squeeze bottles, and pressurized glue guns are manual methods that provide simplicity, low cost, and versatility. These methods are probably the most widely used because of their simplicity. Manual dispensing methods allow application of adhesive to only a small segment of a surface and are particularly effective for small or irregular parts or low-volume production. 

Tray dryers, the simplest type of dryer, are commonly used for batch drying of biological materials, where the wet solids are placed on trays which are then transferred into a chamber. The chamber may have a heating jacket, heated tray supports, or a hot air supply. Vacuum may be applied to reduce the temperature at which the liquid evaporates, preserving heat labile products. These are well suited to low-volume products or flexible plants where a number of different products with different characteristics must be dried. They are relatively inefficient to operate, difficult to clean, and labor intensive to operate. The product is exposed when being loaded and unloaded, so the dryer may need to be located in a clean room or area for pharmaceutical products. 

Despite great improvements in fuel cell technologies over the past decade and demonstration of promising performance, both stationary and automotive fuel cell systems still face large challenges. These primarily involve cost reduction costs on the order of 500 to 800/kW-peak are required for competitive stationary systems, and costs on the order of 50 to 100/kW-peak are required for competitive FCVs. These cost levels are far below current levels for various fuel cell technologies that are in prototype and low-volume production. Additional challenges include fuel cell... 

Batch or continuous Suspension free radical Styrene monomer Water carrier Stabilizing agent Several initiators Excellent heat control High conversion No devolatilization Good range of products Need prereactor for HIPS Poorer clarity Poor uniformity Round beads are hazard High operating costs Better for low-volume products... 

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