Inductive approach

Two reports have been made of the preparation of P-chiral phosphine oxides through reaction of chiral f-butylphenylphosphine oxide treated with LDA and electrophiles. The electrophiles included aldehydes,355 ketones,355 and benzylic-type halides.356 Optically active a-hydroxyphosphonate products have also been generated from aldehydes and dialkyl phosphites using an asymmetric induction approach with LiAl-BINOL.357... 

If stoichiometric quantities of the chiral auxiliary are used (i.e., if the chiral auxiliary is covalently bonded to the molecule bearing the prochiral centres) there are in principle three possible ways of achieving stereoselection in an aldol adduct i) condensation of a chiral aldehyde with an achiral enolate ii) condensation of an achiral aldehyde with a chiral enolate, and iii) condensation of two chiral components. Whereas Evans [14] adopted the second solution, Masamune studied the "double asymmetric induction" approach [22aj. In this context, the relevant work of Heathcock on "relative stereoselective induction" and the "Cram s rule problem" must be also considered [23]. The use of catalytic amounts of an external chiral auxiliary in order to create a local chiral environment, will not be considered here. 

Another situation where checklists can be very helpful is when the investigation team has no hypothesis as to what caused an occurrence. The checklist is an example of an inductive approach that can be used to get off top dead center. 

Inductive Approach—Reasoning from individual cases to a general conclusion by postulating that a system element has failed in a certain way. An attempt is then made to find out what happens to the whole system or process. 

I completely subscribe to Professor Schldfer s opinion that for chemists, the inductive approach from experimental facts is more elucidating than deductions from necessarily uncertain assumptions. Thus, the attempts to relate the spectrochemical series to a variation of charges on the ligands, their distances, and the average radii of the partly filled shell have all been completely inadequate. On the other hand, the relative order of the energy levels having different spin and symmetry types are dependent only upon the ratio between A and a representative value of the interelectronic repulsion parameters, say B. Hence, the electrostatic model has made results known and accepted which would not have been so evident in the more general M.O. formulation. 

In addition to surprisal analysis of measured product energy distributions, surprisal synthesis has been applied [178] to the prediction of energy distributions either by induction from some more limited experimental data or by deduction from some dynamical calculation. In the inductive approach to surprisal synthesis, the available experimental data is used as a constraint to compute the surprisal parameter, X, by ensuring that the entropy is maximised. This surprisal parameter then determines a more detailed distribution. In a more modest way, this approach may be used to extend incomplete product energy distributions. For example, as mentioned before, infrared chemiluminescence measurements are incapable of determining the population of products in the vibrational ground state, v = 0, and this is often induced from the surprisal analysis of the other vibrational levels. 

I have reviewed three methods of clustering text data. Obviously the field is in its infancy, and there is much work that can be done. However, the power of this approach is demonstrated by its simplicity and usefulness. 1 believe that the world of physical data has exploded so much in the last 20 years that the inductive approach can be helpful in organizing it for extrapolation, interpolation, and planning, as well as tor recognizing interactions. In that process the heuristic use of computers can be of tremendous help if we only permit it to help. 

Premises 3 and 4 (above) imply that the design or operating modifications of a process leading to the elimination or containment of hazards (identified by the inductive approach) can be generated deductively from the knowledge of the plant and its operating conditions. 

In the previous section we discussed how an inductive approach can be used to generate all the chemical reaction pathways and the associated thermodynamic states, which lead to top-level hazardous events. A potential hazard is said to exist when the thermodynamic state or sequence of thermodynamic states leading to the hazard cannot be prevented, or the... 

The inductive approach generally followed in this chapter, which is based on the five steps of formulation, directly leads to the discrete formulation of a given problem. However, it does not provide information on the accuracy of this formulation. In this section we deal with the error involved with discrete formulations, which is usually called the truncation error. 

This text is an introduction to engineering heat transfer. The philosophy of the text is based on the development of an inductive approach, earlier introduced by the author ( Conduction Heat Transfer, 1966), to the formulation and solntion of applied problems. Since the greatest difficulty a student faces is how to formulate rather than how to solve a problem, the formulation of problems is stressed from the beginning and throughout the entire text. This is done by first noting that heat transfer rests on but goes beyond thermodynamics, and taking as a basis the well-known form of the first law of thermodynamics for a system,... 

A type of reasoning from the general to the specific. Utilized in the loss prevention industry to analyze a system or process that has failed in certain circumstances, an evaluation is made to determine what modes of the system, component, operator, or organization behavior contributed to the failure. See also Inductive Approach Morphological Approach. 

Loss resulting from a hazardous condition or incident but not caused directly thereby. Inductive Approach... 

A structm-ed analysis of an incident directed by insights from historical case studies of incidents, but not as rigorous as a hazard analysis. See also Deductive Approach Inductive Approach. 

About 25 years before Mendeleev, Gmelin used his own rudimentary system of the elements to give an overall structure and direction to his chemical textbook. He was thus possibly the first chemistry textbook author to do so. Although Mendeleev is usually credited with basing a textbook around the periodic system of the elements, he used an inductive approach, not presenting his system until the final chapter of the first volume of his textbook, even in later editions. Gmehn,... 

The work in Copenhagen begun in 1953 is a prime example of the inductive approach to selected areas of theoretical chemistry, unlike the more fashionable deductive method inherited from physics via ancient geometry, Descartes, Newton, Maxwell, Einstein, and Dirac. 

Karube [389] has pioneered in the development of many bacterial electrodes based on this principle using various bacteria depending on the target analyte. Ion-selective electrodes for NH3, O2, CO2, H2S and have all been used in conjunction with immobilized whole cells. Riedel et al. [390] have recently demonstrated that preincubation of certain bacterial electrodes with the desired analyte (substrate) can enhance the sensitivity of a sensor toward that chemical by a factor of as much as 25. This induction approach may prove to be widely applicable. The shelf-life of a wholecell electrochemical sensor can extend up to several weeks with fully optimized storage conditions (low temperature, for example). Microbe thermistors (sensors that respond to the heat evolved during bacterial metabolism of a substrate) have also been developed, but these present problems once again with respect to analyte specificity,... 

The development of the steam reforming process has not been based on initial understanding of the catalysis. The progress was driven mainly by an inductive approach with feedback from industrial operation and pilot tests [417],... 

For this paper we treat hazard assessment as a combination of two interrelated concepts hazard identification, in which the possible hazardous events at the system boundary are discovered, and hazard analysis, in which the likelihood, consequences and severity of the events are determined. The hazard identification process is based on a model of the way in which parts of a system may deviate fi om their intended behaviour. Examples of such analysis include Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP, Kletz 1992), Fault Propagation and Transformation Calculus (Wallace 2005), Function Failure Analysis (SAE 1996) and Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (Villemeur 1992). Some analysis approaches start with possible deviations and determine likely undesired outcomes (so-called inductive approaches) while others start with a particular unwanted event and try to determine possible causes (so-called deductive approaches). The overall goal may be safety analysis, to assess the safety of a proposed system (a design, a model or an actual product) or accident analysis, to determine the likely causes of an incident that has occurred. 

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