Deductive method

The two ways of learning - deductive and inductive - have already been mentioned. Quite a few properties of chemical compounds can be calculated explicitly. Foremost of these are quantum mechanical methods. However, molecular mechanics methods and even simple empirical methods can often achieve quite high accuracy in the calculation of properties. These deductive methods are discussed in Chapter 7. 

FTA is a deductive method that uses Boolean logic symbols (i.e., AND gates, OR gates) to break down the causes of the top event into basic equipment failures and human errors. The analysts begin with the top event and identify the causes and the logical relationships between the causes and the top event. Each of the causes, called intermediate events, is examined in the same manner until the basic causes for every intermediate event have been identified. 

Fault trees are a deductive method for identifying ways in which hazards can lead to accidents. The approach starts with a well-defined accident, or top event, and works backward toward the various scenarios that can cause the accident. 

Deductive method (adjusted selling price in country of import)... 

Deductive methods, such as the Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) that proceeds by starting from the top event and looking for failures that may cause it to happen. These methods are based on questions of the type How can it happen ... 

Usually, Sherlock Holmes was right in his conclusions and assessment of situations while applying his deductive method of analysis. However, in this case, his ideas do not work.. Our country (the USSR successor), Russian scientists, the world scientific community, followers, friends, and colleagues of Academician N.M. Emanuel, and all who knew and worked with him are grateful to him and keep dear memory of him. 

The purpose of this book is to promote the more efficient teaching of chemistry by modern methods. The choice and arrangement of subject-matter is based on the author s extended experience with students of varied ability. The book as a whole is the outcome of a desire to provide a course in chemistry which shall be a judicious combination of the inductive and deductive methods. 

Alfred Werner was born in 1866 and died from arteriosclerosis in 1919, He started as an organic chemist and finished his chemical career in 1915 as one of the foremost inorganic chemists,. He won the Nobel Prize in 1913, During a period of two and a half decades he published 174 papers and supervised the work covered by 200 doctoral dissertations, Werner was the founder of coordination chemistry. He rejected the then prevailing concept formulated by Kekule) that the valence of an element is invariable and introduced instead the notion of principal and auxiliary valence. He also formulated the concept of coordination number, Werner used both the inductive and the deductive methods of reasoning. Most of his predictions on geometrical and optical isomerism were verified by experiment. 

Boyle, Robert. (1627-1691). A native of Ireland, Boyle devoted his life to experiments in what was then called natural philosophy, i.e., physical science. He was influenced early by Galileo. His interest aroused by a pump that had just been invented, Boyle studied the properties of air, on which he wrote a treatise (1660). Soon thereafter, he stated the famous law that bears his name (see following entry). Boyle s group of scientific enthusiasts was known as the invisible college , and in 1663 it became the Royal Society of London. Boyle was one of the first to apply the principle that Francis Bacon had described as the new method —namely, inductive experimentation as opposed to the deductive method of Aristotle—and this became and has remained the cornerstone of scientific research. Boyle also investigated hydrostatics, desalination of seawater, crystals, electricity, etc. He approached but never quite stated the atomic theory of matter however, he did distinguish between compounds and mixtures and conceived the idea of particles becoming associated to form molecules. 

Deductive method is opposite of inductive method. In this method the learner proceeds from general to particular, from abstract to concrete. Thus in this method facts are deduced or analysed by the application of established formula or experimentation. In this case the formula is accepted by the learner as a duly established fact. 

Summary A careful consideration of merits and limitations of these two methods leads us to conclude that Inductive Method is the fore-runner of Deductive Method. For effective teaching of chemistry, both inductive and deductive approaches should be used because no one is complete without the other. Induction leaves the learner at a point where he cannot stop and the after work has to be done and completed by deduction. Deduction is a process that is particularly suitable for final statement and induction is most suitable for exploration fields. Induction gives the lead and deduction follows. In chemistry if we want to teach about composition of water then its composition is determined by a endiometer tube (inductive process) and confirmed by the process of electrolysis of water (deductive process). 

There has been a large decline in the number of students interested in taking up a study of sciences or mathematics. In a recent report [1] produced for the European Communities the authors indicate that action is needed to reverse that trend. They propose a renewal of the pedagogical practices used in the schools. A change from the normally used deductive method to an inquiry-based method. They also assume that teachers play a key role in the renewal of science education Networks of teachers stimulate teacher s professional development... and stimulate morale and motivation ... 

A WApH titration method was used for the determination of acid dissociation constants (pK a values) of ionizable compounds. Microspeciation was investigated by three approaches ( ) selective monitoring of ionizable group by spectrophotometry, ( ) deductive method, and (3) K(z) method for determination of tautomeric ratio from co-solvent mixtures. It has been shown that the WApH technique, for such types of ampholytes, is able to deduce the microconstants and tautomeric ratios, which are in good agreement with the literature data. 

Fault tree analysis is a rigorous method that can be used to determine the PFOa g or to supplement better estimates of individual initiating causes or independent protection layers (IPLs) in LORA. Fault tree is a deductive method for identifying ways in which hazards can... 

Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a deductive method, which usually serves for quantification. Just like any method of systems analysis it requires in the first place a qualitative investigation of the system under analysis. After system failure or more generally the undesired or unwanted event (e.g. toxic release) has been defined, logic relationships with the so-called primary or basic events are identified and represented by a fault tree (vid. Fig. 9.8). The primary event may represent the failure of a technical component, an operator error or an impact from outside the plant like flooding or the spreading of a fire from neighbouring installations. 

What is clear is that, while FTA is mostly used to provide a quantitative assessment of a failure condition, it remains fundamentally a quahtative analysis method due to the means that the FTA is developed [see NASA Fault Tree Handbook paragraph 1.2]. Nevertheless, the discipline the analyst goes through to consider each failure path methodically provides an excellent deductive method to provide a reasoned estimate of failure probability. Additionally, the FTA provides more information than simply probability of the top event and can be used even without probability calculation to understand weaknesses in the system design (such as single point failures) and to conduct sensitivity analysis to determine which parts of the system may drive the overall probability of particular failure modes. 

FIGURE 5.8 Phylogenetic cladistics is a hypothetico-deductive method analyses restricted to the construction of a dendrogram from a data matrix are not. 

The deductive method is also based on the experimental kinetic data and the available information on the reactivity of reaction species, but proceeds from the maximum possible large scheme of the reaction. Further the procedure on simplification reduction) of the reaction scheme follows, containing an excessive number of inessential reaction steps. Such a procedure implies the application of special mathematical methods, the performance of new experiments, and the comparison of descriptive capability for various options of the simplified reaction models. Only after that a conclusion is made about the correctness of the reaction kinetic model (see Figure 3.2). 

It seems evident that the deductive method is more promising. The same conclusion can be made analyzing the literature on applying the computational approaches in the chemical kinetics [15-18] and the philosophic investigations [19,20] as well. 

Intuitively one can conclude that the degree of reliability for rate constant values determines the limits of complexity of reaction mechanisms, at the level of their design and analysis. This is entirely true also when selecting the strategy for the investigation of reaction mechanisms. In Section 3.2 such approaches are conditionally subdivided into inductive and deductive methods. 

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