Pipelines, gas

Covers all land eastwards to the Urals, southwards to North Africa and up to Syria, Iraq and Iran. Scale - 1 5,500,000, 4-colour artwork. Features main roads, railways, oil and gas pipelines, plus extra information including national flags, currencies and populations. 

Where the distance to the customer is very large, or where a gas pipeline would have to cross too many countries, gas may be shipped as a liquid. Gas has to be chilled to -160°C in a LNG plant to keep it in liquid form, and is shipped in refrigerated tankers. To condition the gas for liquefaction any COj, HjS, water and heavier hydrocarbons must be removed, by the methods already discussed. The choice of how much propane and butane to leave in the LNG depends upon the heating requirements negotiated with the customer. 

Injection gas pressures are usually much higher than lift-gas or gas pipeline pressures and special care has to be taken to select compressor lubricants that will not dissolve in high pressure gas. Such a situation could lead to inadequate lubrication and may impair well injectivity. 

In oil and gas industry of C.l.S. a lot of pipelines are in operation, including 206 thousand km of main gas pipelines, 65 thousand km of main oil pipelines, 6 thousand km of product pipelines and more than 300 thousand km of field pipelines of different applications. Two thirds of pipelines are more than 15 years old. 

On the oil and gas pipelines more than 100 big accidents happens yearly and, unfortunately, the situation will become even worse in the nearest future. 

The intelligent magnetic pig KOD-4M-1420 was developed and passed trials. This system is designed to provide corrosion and cracks detection in the operating underground gas pipelines at the distances up to 150 km. 

To support them, therefore, immense activities are prompted both in pubh c private sectors with increasing importance on NDT. The particular application of radiography using Ir-192 isotopes for industrial production, construction maintenance of industries, power plants, oil and gas pipelines plants, railway, aviation systems, naval structures and vessels, etc is currently in the fore front for its reliabih ly, ease of application record keeping advantages. 

In the coal-mining industry, more than 300 mines are operated in three coal-mining regions Ukraine produces only 5 5 million tons of its own oil, but the ramified network of oil pipelines supports the operation of 10 petroleum plants. The Ukrainian gas pipelines transport the Russian gas to Central and Western Europe. 

Natural gas pipeline Natural gas wells Natural graphite Natural Graphite Natural gums... 

Tracer Type. A discrete quantity of a foreign substance is injected momentarily into the flow stream and the time interval for this substance to reach a detection point, or pass between detection points, is measured. From this time, the average velocity can be computed. Among the tracers that have historically been used are salt, anhydrous ammonia, nitrous oxide, dyes, and radioactive isotopes. The most common appHcation area for tracer methods is in gas pipelines where tracers are used to check existing metered sections and to spot-check unmetered sections. 

Commercially pure (< 99.997%) helium is shipped directiy from helium-purification plants located near the natural-gas supply to bulk users and secondary distribution points throughout the world. Commercially pure argon is produced at many large air-separation plants and is transported to bulk users up to several hundred kilometers away by tmck, by railcar, and occasionally by dedicated gas pipeline (see Pipelines). Normally, only cmde grades of neon, krypton, and xenon are produced at air-separation plants. These are shipped to a central purification faciUty from which the pure materials, as well as smaller quantities and special grades of helium and argon, are then distributed. Radon is not distributed commercially. 

Although there are no new methane VPO competitive processes, current technology may be usehil for the production of impure methanol in remote areas for use as a hydrate inhibitor in natural gas pipelines (119,120). 

Essentially all of the methane [74-82-8] is removed ia the demethanizer overhead gas product. High recovery of ethane and heavier components as demethanizer bottoms products is commonplace. The work that is generated by expanding the gas ia the turboexpander is utilized to compress the residue gas from the demethanizer after it is warmed by heat exchange with the inlet gas. Recompression and deUvery to a natural gas pipeline is performed downstream of the plant. A propane recovery of 99% can be expected when ethane recoveries are ia excess of 65%. 

Some U.S. natural gas pipeline companies are subsidiaries of gas hoi ding companies. The largest U.S. natural gas pipeline companies, in terms of overall length of transmission systems are Northern Natural Gas Company, 26,539 km Tennessee Gas Pipeline Corporation, 23,567 km Columbia Gas Transmission Company, 18,481 km Natural Gas Pipeline Company of America, 17,200 km and Transcontinental Gas Pipe Line Corporation, 17,071 km. For gas moved in 1994, the four largest pipelines were ANR Pipeline Company, 95,278 x 10 m (3,363,275 MMcf), of which 40.8% was gas moved for others Transcontinental Gas Pipe Line Corporation, 87, 050 x 10 m (3,073,801 MMcf), of which 99.7% was moved for others Natural Gas Pipeline Company of America, 83,089 x 10 m (2,933,940 MMcf), of which 87.1% was moved for others and Northern Natural Gas Company, 56, 523 x 10 m ... 

The main technical difference between Hquid and gas pipeline transport is the compressibiUty of the fluid being moved and the use of pumps, rather than compressors, to supply the pressure needed for transport. The primary use for Hquids pipelines is the transport of cmde oil and petroleum products. 

Pipeline technology iavolves desiga, coastmctioa, maintenance (qv), and operation. Although certain aspects of the technology differ under different climatic conditions, whether above or below ground or under water, etc, the basic steps are the same for Hquids pipelines as for gas pipelines. 

When constmction is complete, the pipeline must be tested for leaks and strength before being put into service industry code specifies the test procedures. Water is the test fluid of choice for natural gas pipelines, and hydrostatic testing is often carried out beyond the yield strength in order to reHeve secondary stresses added during constmction or to ensure that all defects are found. Industry code limits on the hoop stress control the test pressures, which are also limited by location classification based on population. Hoop stress is calculated from the formula, S = PD/2t, where S is the hoop stress in kPa (psig) P is the internal pressure in kPa (psig), and D and T are the outside pipe diameter and nominal wall thickness, respectively, in mm (in.). 

Cross-country gas pipelines generally must odorize the normally odorless, colorless, and tasteless gas ia urban and suburban areas, as is required of gas distribution companies. Organosulfur compounds, such as mercaptans, are usually used for this purpose, and code requires that the odor must be strong enough for someone with a normal sense of smell to detect a gas leak iato air at one-fifth the lower explosive limit of gas—air mixtures. The latter is about 5%, so the odorant concentration should be about 1%, but most companies odorize more heavily than this as a safety precaution. 

Data compiled by the U.S. DOT iadicate that pipeline transport is the safest materials transport mode, particularly over long distances. In 1990, fataUties attributed to oil and gas pipelines were significantly lower (8 out of 4679) for all materials transporters ia the United States, compared with 599 for rail transport and 3281 for motor transport (tmcks) (53). 

Map of Major Natural Gas Pipelines, U.S. Dept, of Energy, for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Cmde oil and products pipeline maps also available. 

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