Full-scale applications

Another consideration connected with these multiple effects is the optimum placement of the ozonation stages within a whole treatment scheme. The efficiency of every ozonation unit and the ozone demand depend on the water and waste water quality produced by the preceding process units (e. g. particle removal or biodegradation). Ozonation will also have pronounced effects downstream in the treatment sequence, e. g. improved biodegradation of dissolved organics. 

Nearly all ozonation effects and their respective extent and kinetic pattern depend on the amount of ozone consumed in the ozone contactor and subsequent reactors. This requires the search for and definition of optimal operational parameters for an ozonation stage, such as a concentration-time-value (c-f-value) for a given degree of disinfection or the ratio of ozone mass consumed per mass of organic compounds initially present. 

This chapter provides an overview and guidance on the various applications of ozone in water and waste water treatment, where full-scale facilities exist and it has been demonstrated that ozonation is effective and economical. 

The detection of new kinds of microorganisms, such as the cysts and oocysts of parasites (Giardia, Cryptosporidium), the identification of more and more chemical pollutants in waters and increasing quality levels required for drinking and waste waters has induced new interest in ozonation and ozone-based advanced oxidation processes. However, care has to be taken in the application of ozonation, since recent research has indicated that presumably hazardous by-products can be formed, e. g. bromate in the ozonation of waters containing bromide. 

The subsequent parts on full-scale applications of ozone for water and waste water treatment are not arranged according to the water source, but describe the different and multiple tasks of ozone with regard to water constituents and treatment goals. Furthermore, attention is given to the appropriate combination of the ozonation process with preceding and subsequent treatment steps. 

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Incineration with heat recovery Energy in the form of steam None Markets for steam required proven in numerous full-scale applications air-quality regulations possibly prohibiting use... 

The following two project descriptions incorporate examples of completed, full-scale applications of pump-and-treat technology to MTBE-contaminated sites. 

Effective control of the flow of slurry mixture to a large number of parallel flow paths. (Currently, flow control has been demonstrated on only three parallel paths, whereas the full-scale application would have up to 432 parallel flow paths in the catholyte feed circuit.)... 

A special technique proposed in the literature for the removal of dyes is the inclusion of dye into cave molecules such as crown-ethers/cucurbituril, but developments with regard to regeneration and disposal of the crown ether have to be performed to permit introduction into full-scale application [116]. 

For the treatment of already mixed wastewater, various methods have been proposed and tested in full-scale application examples are ... 

This technology has been used in at least one full-scale application. Landtreat is a patented technology and is commercially available. 

At an abandoned manufacturing facility in Emeryville, California, the groundwater was contaminated with hexavalent chromium and up to 12,000 micrograms per liter (p,g/liter) of trichloroethene (TCE). A pilot-scale demonstration of in situ reactive zones using molasses was conducted in 1995 and 1996. In 1997, the project was expanded to a full-scale application. The full-scale system used 91 temporary injection points to deliver molasses to the subsurface. The overall project cost was approximately 400,000 (D210571, p. 90). 

In 1995, PF was used with enhanced dual-phase extraction in a full-scale application at a site in central New Jersey. As a result of manufacturing activities at the site, groundwater had become contaminated with TCE. Twenty vapor extraction wells and a 500-ft /min vapor system were used to treat 1.5 acres to a depth of 30 ft. According to ARS Technologies, total costs were 1.1 million (D22628I, p. 1). 

The Bioremediation Technology Services (BTS) technology is a bioremediation technology for organic contaminants. This technology has been used in multiple full-scale applications and is commercially available. The process is patented and has been under scientific investigation since the 1970s. 

Neither of the Clyde Engineering metals removal technologies are currently commercially available however, Clyde Engineering Service is willing to sell the patent (U.S. 4,530,763) for one of the technologies (personal correspondence, Robert Clyde, Clyde Engineering, 1/17/97). No full-scale application has been completed for either technology. 

In 1998, a pilot-scale field demonstration of cosolvent flushing technology took place in Jacksonville, Florida. The cost of the demonstration was approximately 440,000. Plans were in development for a full-scale application of the technology. It was estimated that alcohol reinjection could reduce the cost of treatment by up to 50% (D21314Z, p. 10). 

At a former manufacturing facility in Skokie, Illinois, the initial phase of treatment required 1775 MWh of electrical energy purchased at a base rate of 14,000 per month, plus a use rate of 40/MWh. Total electrical costs for the initial phase were 148,000, or approximately 6.41/m of treatment volume (D19290Z, p. 2). According to the vendor, the full-scale application of the technology at this site cost approximately 32/yd of soil treated (D189681, p. 6). For additional information, see Case Study 4. 

In 1996, the vendor stated that the results of pilot-scale studies using simulated soil samples indicated that the energy expenditures for the extraction of heavy metals from soils may be at least 500 kWh/m at electrode spacings of 1.0 to 1.5 m. The direct cost of these studies suggests that the energy expenditure and enhancement costs for a full-scale application of the technology could be at least 50/m (D12897W, p. 183). 

Microbial cleaners (MCs) are a mixture of specially selected microorganisms and biocatalysts designed for the bioremediation of organic contaminants in soil or water. According to the vendor, MCs have been used in multiple full-scale applications and are commercially available from EnviroLogic Engineering. 

Cost information provided by the vendor for full-scale applications of BIO-INTEGRATION technology is provided below. 

The MZC process has been used in full-scale applications and is commercially available. It can be applied ex situ or in situ. A common application of this technology is landfarming, in which contaminated soils are placed in cells, the soils are mixed and aerated, and MZC products are added. Treatment times depend on the level and type of contamination, and the ease with which the soil can be worked. Higher contamination levels require more time, as do soils with higher clay concentrations. According to the vendor, sandy soils or moderate contamination... 

The EPOC microfiltration process has been commercially available since 1989. The technology has been used in full-scale applications. The vendor states that treatment systems have been installed at over 45 sites worldwide. 

SCWO is commercially available through GA however, no full-scale applications of GA s technology had been performed as of 2000. Three pilot-scale units are in operation One tested at the Illinois Institute of Technology, one built for the U.S. Air Force, and one built for the U.S. Navy. 

The U.S. Army Environmental Center (USAEC) conducted a pilot-scale demonstration of the Daramend technology at the U.S. Department of Defense s (DOD s) Joliet Army Ammunition Plant in Joliet, Illinois. Based on this demonstration, the USAEC estimated the costs associated with a full-scale application of the technology. The estimated costs were 819/yd for the treatment of 10,000 yd 504/yd for the treatment of 50,000 yd and 476/yd for the treatment of 100,000 yd (D221476, p. 3). 

Based on the Environmental Protection Agency s (EPA s) Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) demonstration at the Domtar Wood Preserving Facility in Trenton, Ontario, Canada, the vendor estimated the costs associated with a full-scale application of the technology... 

ACT is commercially available and according to the vendor has been used in full-scale applications in multiple applications in nnmerons conntries. 

The technology was applied at the Camp Lejeune Military Reservation, Site 82, Area A in Onslow County, North Carolina. The system was installed in 1995. From April 1995 through December 1995, approximately 17,500 yd of soil were treated in this full-scale application. The total cost of the remediation was 469,940. This total includes 222,455 in capital costs and 247,485 in operation and maintenance (O M) costs (D196558, pp. 1-3). 

IT Corporation offers techniques that use ozone to oxidize contaminants in the subsurface or in above-ground treatment cells. Ozonation can be used as a primary treatment step, as a pretreatment step prior to bioremediation, or as a polishing step after other technologies. Ozonation has been tested in the laboratory, in pilot-scale demonstrations, and in full-scale applications. Patent... 

The technology can treat organic contaminants such as pesticides, fuels, creosote, and pen-tachlorophenol. The technology has treated coal tars, refinery wastes, hydrocarbons, and wood preserving wastes in full-scale applications. 

C-Sparger technology was used in two cities in Kansas to treat groundwater contaminated with TCE. The source of contamination for these sites were dry cleaning establishments. Cost information for these full-scale applications are summarized in Table 1. 

No information was available on the costs of using the HRS retorting process to treat hazardous or mixed wastes. Cost estimates for the full-scale application of the HRS process for oil shale retorting may be found in D120672. 

In 1996, pilot- and full-scale applications of CleanOX were performed to treat VOCs in an 80-ft by 80-ft contaminant plume in Framingham, Massachusetts. The total cost of this demonstration was 45,000. This figure included the cost of chemicals, chemical application, and expertise required for treatment however, the cost of monitoring wells was not included (D18766A, p. 7). 

The DOE S PNNL compared the costs for mercury removal using SAMMS, GT-73 (an ion exchange resin), and activated carbon. The comparison was based on laboratory equilibrium data for the SAMMS material, manufacturer s performance data for the GT-73, and performance data from full-scale applications of activated carbon (D230331, p. 11). Table 2 presents the cost data provided by PNNL. 

This technology has been demonstrated in bench-, pUot-, and full-scale applications. The Bohn Biofilter Bohn off-gas treatment (TO 130) is one example of a commercially available biofilter system that uses compost or soil as the filter medium. 

At a site in Texas where a Phytokinetics, Inc., technology has been proposed, projected costs are 390,000. Groundwater at the 22-acre site is contaminated with salts and heavy metals. Cleanup would involve planting eucalyptus and salt cedar trees. Projected costs include expenses associated with greenhouse studies, field trials, and a full-scale application (D22474I, p. D-5). 

Pintail Systems, Inc. s, spent-ore bioremediation technology includes two main treatment processes. The first process involves the biological treatment of cyanide wastes using indigenous bacteria, which are isolated from contaminated sites and cultured in large quantities for full-scale applications. The second process involves metal biomineralization in which biological processes are adapted to immobilize soluble and leachable metals. 

The system is currently commercially available and has been used in multiple full-scale applications. 

The ETTA technology was demonstrated for removal of pesticides from soil in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (ERA) Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) program in September 1992 at an abandoned pesticide mixing site in western Arizona. This technology has also been used to remove VOCs and SVOCs in full-scale applications at five other sites. The technology is commercially available. 

The vendor estimates that a full-scale system designed to treat from 50 to 500 tons per day would have a treatment cost ranging from 50 to 80 per ton. The vendor also claims that this technology treats solids with high oil and water content for less than 40 per ton for recovery of clean oil and solids (D17050D). No information was available on capital cost for the full-scale system, and it should be noted that no full-scale application has been conducted (D148770,... 

Proof-of-concept studies, and pilot-scale and full-scale demonstrations, have been successfully completed for a variety of contaminants, and additional full-scale applications are planned. Berkeley Environmental Restoration Center is currently seeking commercial licensees for SEE. The technology is commercially available through SteamTech Environmental Services and Integrated Water Resources, Inc. 

The cost of a pilot-scale demonstration of Surtek s surfactant remediation at a site in Laramie, Wyoming, was estimated to be 2,500,000, or 100/yd. A full-scale application at this site was estimated to cost approximately 570,000 per acre (for 100 acres treated). Costs for this technology are highly variable and depend upon site-specific characteristics such as amount, type, and depth of contamination (personal communication, Tom Sale, CH2M Hill, 1997). 

Sybron Chemical, Inc., produces microbial cultures that can be used for bioaugmentation of soils or groundwater contaminated with organics such as hydrocarbons, gasoline, and diesel. The microbial blends are proprietary and commercially available and have been used in multiple full-scale applications. 

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