Discover

Bafmer series Frequencies of certain lines in the spectrum of hydrogen are simply related to each other, and can be expressed by a general formula. One group of lines is termed the Balmer series. Other series were later discovered in the spectrum of hydrogen by Lyman, Paschen, Brackett and Pfund. 

Bucherer reaction Bucherer discovered that the interconversion of 2-naphthol and 2-naphthylamine through the action of alkali and ammonia could be facilitated if the reaction was carried out in the presence of (HSO3]" at about 150 C. This reaction is exceptional for the ease with which an aromatic C —OH bond is broken. It is not of general application, it is probable that the reaction depends upon the addition of [HSO3]" to the normally unstable keto-form of 2-naphthol, and subsequent displacement of —OH by —NH2. 

Rontgen rays An alternative name for X-rays, which were discovered by Rontgen in... 

Simmons-Smith reagent Named after the duPont chemists who discovered that diiodo-mechane would react with an active zinc-copper couple in ether to give a reagent with molecular formula ICHiZnl. The reagent adds stereospecifically cis- to alkenes to give cyclopropanes in high yields. 

Watson s vivid and outspoken account of how he and Crick discovered the structure of DNA (and won themselves a Nobel Prize) - one of the greatest scientific achievements of the century. 

For more than a century petroleum geologists have been looking for oil. During this period major discoveries have been made in many parts of the world. However, it is becoming increasingly likely that most of the giant fields have already been discovered and that future finds are likely to be smaller, more complex, fields. This is particularly true for mature areas like the North Sea. 

Introduction and Commercial Application JUe objective of performing appraisal activities on discovered accumulations is to reduce the uncertainty in the description of the hydrocarbon reservoir, and to provide information with which to make a decision on the next action. The next action may be, for example, to undertake more appraisal, to commence development, to stop activities, or to sell the prospect. In any case, the appraisal activity should lead to a decision which yields a greater value than the outcome of a decision made in the absence of the information from the appraisal. The improvement in the value of the action, given the appraisal information, should be greater than the cost of the appraisal activities, otherwise the appraisal effort is not worthwhile. 

When an oil or gas field has just been discovered, the quality of the information available about the well stream may be sparse, and the amount of detail put into the process design should reflect this. However, early models of the process along with broad cost estimates are needed to progress, and both design detail and cost ranges narrow as projects develop through the feasibility study and field development planning phases (see Section 12.0 for a description of project phases). 

An exploration or appraisal well, if successful, can be converted to a subsea producer if hydrocarbons are discovered. In this case the initial well design would have to allow for any proposed conversion. 

So far, the economics of developing discovered fields has been discussed, and the sensitivity analysis introduced was concerned with variations in parameters such as reserves, capex, opex, oil price, and project timing. In these cases the risk of there being no hydrocarbon reserves was not mentioned, since it was assumed that a discovery had been made, and that there was at least some minimum amount of recoverable reserves (called proven reserves). This section will briefly consider how exploration prospects are economically evaluated. 

At these tests was parallel to vibrations observation discovered acoustic response of balls contact with sample surface. Characteristic courses of total number of AE signal counts (in all observed levels) dependence on time are shown on Fig.6. 

DVOSACEK, - MAZAL,P. Utilization of the Acoustic Emission for Discovering of Material Pitting. In.4th Symposium DESIGN 96, University of Rijeka, Opatija, Croatia, 1996,... 

Based o the test data, the parameter a6 is correlating with the residual resistance (table 1). It is discovered that the less resistible samples have much higher value of a6. On the base of collected data it is possible to identify the critical value of the accumulation coefficient (which is a defective sign of the material (if aG> AiScR-the sample is defected if aG< a6cr - the sample is without defects). 

Braun and Hauck [3] discovered that the irrotational and solenoidal components of a 2-D vector field can be imaged separately using the transverse and longitudinal measurements, respectively. This result has a clear analogy in a 2-D tensor field. We can distinguish three types of measurements which determine potentials of the symmetric tensor field separately ... 

Real position, type and sizes of these flaws have been discovered. On the basis of this information it was possible to characterize flaw as independent or take into account their interaction in strength assessments. 

In 1990, ASTM E07-01 started work on a revision of E94. The proposed criteria for film classification used graininess and gradient to produce an index which represented quality. In early work it was discovered that a fine grained film was possible with low contrast which produced the same index as a fine grained film with high contrast. 

The entropically driven disorder-order transition in hard-sphere fluids was originally discovered in computer simulations [58, 59]. The development of colloidal suspensions behaving as hard spheres (i.e., having negligible Hamaker constants, see Section VI-3) provided the means to experimentally verify the transition. Experimental data on the nucleation of hard-sphere colloidal crystals [60] allows one to extract the hard-sphere solid-liquid interfacial tension, 7 = 0.55 0.02k T/o, where a is the hard-sphere diameter [61]. This value agrees well with that found from density functional theory, 7 = 0.6 0.02k r/a 2 [21] (Section IX-2A). 

A beautiful and elegant example of the intricacies of surface science is the formation of transparent, thermodynamically stable microemulsions. Discovered about 50 years ago by Winsor [76] and characterized by Schulman [77, 78], microemulsions display a variety of useful and interesting properties that have generated much interest in the past decade. Early formulations, still under study today, involve the use of a long-chain alcohol as a cosurfactant to stabilize oil droplets 10-50 nm in diameter. Although transparent to the naked eye, microemulsions are readily characterized by a variety of scattering, microscopic, and spectroscopic techniques, described below. 

The miderstanding of the quantum mechanics of atoms was pioneered by Bohr, in his theory of the hydrogen atom. This combined the classical ideas on planetary motion—applicable to the atom because of the fomial similarity of tlie gravitational potential to tlie Coulomb potential between an electron and nucleus—with the quantum ideas that had recently been introduced by Planck and Einstein. This led eventually to the fomial theory of quaiitum mechanics, first discovered by Heisenberg, and most conveniently expressed by Schrodinger in the wave equation that bears his name. 

It should be emphasized that isomerization is by no means the only process involving chemical reactions in which spectroscopy plays a key role as an experimental probe. A very exciting topic of recent interest is the observation and computation [73, 74] of the spectral properties of the transition state [6]—catching a molecule in the act as it passes the point of no return from reactants to products. Furthennore, it has been discovered from spectroscopic observation [75] that molecules can have motions that are stable for long times even above the barrier to reaction. 

Studies of surfaces and surface properties can be traced to the early 1800s [1]. Processes that involved surfaces and surface chemistry, such as heterogeneous catalysis and Daguerre photography, were first discovered at that time. Since then, there has been a continual interest in catalysis, corrosion and other chemical reactions that involve surfaces. The modem era of surface science began in the late 1950s, when instmmentation that could be used to investigate surface processes on the molecular level started to become available. 

Ion chemistry is a product of the 20th century. J J Thomson discovered the electron in 1897 and identified it as a constituent of all matter. Free positive ions (as distinct from ions deduced to exist in solids or electrolytes) were first produced by Thomson just before the turn of the century. He produced beams of light ions, and measured their mass-to-charge ratios, in the early 1900s, culminating in the discovery of two isotopes of neon in 1912 [1]. This year also marked Thomson s discovery of which turns out to be the... 

Having separated the dynamical from equilibrium (or, more accurately, quasi-equilibrium) effects, one can readily discover the origin of the activation free energy and define the concept of the potential of mean force by analysis of the expression for the TST rate constant, k in (A3.8.3). The latter can be written as [7]... 

To date, researchers have identified more than 100 different molecules, composed of up to 13 atoms, in the interstellar medium [16]. Most were initially detected at microwave and (sub)millimetre frequencies, and the discoveries have reached far beyond the mere existence of molecules. Newly discovered entities such as difhise mterstellar clouds, dense (or dark) molecular clouds and giant molecular cloud complexes were characterized for the first time. Indeed, radioastronomy (which includes observations ranging from radio to submillunetre frequencies) has dramatically changed our perception of the composition of the universe. Radioastronomy has shown that most of the mass in the interstellar medium is contained in so-called dense... 

The otiier type of noncrystalline solid was discovered in the 1980s in certain rapidly cooled alloy systems. D Shechtman and coworkers [15] observed electron diffraction patterns with sharp spots with fivefold rotational synnnetry, a syimnetry that had been, until that time, assumed to be impossible. It is easy to show that it is impossible to fill two- or tliree-dimensional space with identical objects that have rotational symmetries of orders other than two, tliree, four or six, and it had been assumed that the long-range periodicity necessary to produce a diffraction pattern with sharp spots could only exist in materials made by the stacking of identical unit cells. The materials that produced these diffraction patterns, but clearly could not be crystals, became known as quasicrystals. 

---