Ecosystem services

Abstract In most of the world s watercourses, dramatic modifications have occurred as a consequence of intensive use by human societies. The simplification of the channel network and the alteration of water fluxes have an impact upon the capacity of fluvial systems to recover from disturbances, because of their irreversible consequences. However, human impacts on river hydrology, such as those that derive from regulating their flow or by affecting their channel geomorphology, affect the functional organisation of streams, as well as the ecosystem services that derive from them, and lead to the simplification and impoverishment of these ecosystems. 

Constanza R, d Arge R, de Groot R, Earber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K, Naeem S, O Neill RV, Paruelo J, Raskin RG, Sutton P, Van deen Belt M (1997) The value of the world s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387 253-260... 

Ecosystem services can be considered as being the goods and services provided by coupled ecological and social systems. They provide our material needs and quality of life, and we all depend on the sustainable use of ecosystems services. The Millennium Ecosystems Assessment has brought the continual capacity for coupled ecological-social systems to deliver eco-systems services into public attention. It states that the ability of many systems to deliver valuable services has been compromised by over-exploitation of several resources and environmental degradation. 

How external forces change the quality and availability of ecosystem services and how activities in one region affect the ecosystem elsewhere. 

The linkage between livelihoods and human well-being and ecosystem services. 

The management of ecosystem services especially when under pressure. 

Nelson E, Mendoza G, Regetz J, Polasky S, Tallis H, Cameron D, Chan KM, et al. Modeling multiple ecosystem services, biodiversity conservation, commodity production and tradeoffs at landscape scales. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment, 2009. 7 pp. 4-11. doi 10.1890/080023... 

Metzger M, Rounsevell M, Acosta-Michlik L, Leemans R, Schroter. The vulnerability of ecosystem services to land use change. Agriculture, Ecosystems andEnvironment, 2006.114 pp. 69-85. doi 10.1016/j.agee.2005.11.025... 

As examples, economists have calculated the welfare loss induced by apremature death to some l million (central estimate) [1, 2], The welfare loss caused by a mild cough is estimated to some 38 [2], and the loss of an IQ point is valuated to some 3,000-15,000 [3, 4]. The ecosystem services provided by a French forest provide welfare benefits corresponding to some 970 per hectare [5]. 

Use values are defined as the utility one person gains from using the good or service, for example walking in the forest or fishing. This use value includes direct and non-direct values. The direct use value is the value attributed to direct utilization of ecosystem services. Non-direct-use value or functional value relates to the ecological function performed, e.g. by forests, such as the protection of soils and the regulation of watersheds [19]. 

For instance, Costanza et al. [24] estimated the value of 17 ecosystem services in 16 biomes to an average US 33 trillion (12 zeroes) globally. This value is almost twice the size of the compared global GDP (or Global Gross National Product to be precise). The ecological economists estimate these values so that ecosystems and biodiversity can be included in new calculations of economic efficiency and economic performance. 

The background methods used for valuing ecosystem services are often similar for ecological and environmental economists. The valuation methods are presented earlier in this chapter. 

Chevassus-Au-Louis B, Salles J-M, Pujol J-L, Bielsa S, Richard D, Martin G (2009) An economic approach to biodiversity and ecosystem services - contribution to public decision making La Documentation franfaise - Paris, June 2009... 

Keywords Ecosystem services, European river basins, Risk assessment, Risk management, River basin management plans, Water framework directive... 

Fig. 19 Guidelines for environmental management through a decision support system for ecosystem services and sustainability...

Economic analysis/valuation of specific functions or services provided by the natural system (i.e. the ecosystem) and of the (societal) costs and benefits of the measures proposed to restore these services, contributes to the transparency of the decisions. Concerning the system, a better definition of water services is needed in order to evaluate recovery costs of water uses and environmental costs. The economic analysis should also include a valuation of water and ecosystem services. For instance, the delivery of clean water by the ecosystem (e.g. through its filtering capacity or capacity to degrade contaminants) is one of these services. 

There is still a lack of knowledge on ecosystem services integrated concepts. The ecology of recovery (for instance, how long does recovery of a measure or due to a measure take When does a system recover ) is also a concept still not well understood. For instance, for instance, the most important factor for the recovery of a population may be difficult to identify since there can be multiple causes involved. Studies discriminating these are scarce, especially comparisons of the significance of the species traits and of its interactions with other species for its ability to recover. 

Constanza R, d Arge R, de Groot R et al (1997) The value of world s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387 253-259... 

Land-use change in the coastal zone has accelerated the rate of pollutant loading for three reasons. First, removal of vegetation mobilizes materials, such as sediment. Second, the emplacement of impervious surfeces, such as roads and roofs, enhances pollutant transport as part of stormwater runoff Third, loss of natural habitats, such as wetlands, eliminates important ecosystem services, such as pollutant uptake and degradation. 

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