Detection in humans

No data were located concerning whether pharmacokinetics of endosulfan in children are different from adults. There are no adequate data to determine whether endosulfan or its metabolites can cross the placenta. Studies in animals addressing these issues would provide valuable information. Although endosulfan has been detected in human milk (Lutter et al. 1998), studies in animals showed very little accumulation of endosulfan residues in breast milk (Gorbach et al. 1968 Indraningsih et al. 1993), which is consistent with the rapid elimination of endosulfan from tissues and subsequent excretion via feces and urine. There are no PBPK models for endosulfan in either adults or children. There is no information to evaluate whether absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of endosulfan in children is different than in adults. 

Exposure Levels in Humans. This information is necessary for assessing the need to conduct health studies on these populations. Trichloroethylene has been detected in human body fluids such as blood (Brugnone et al. 1994 Skender et al. 1994) and breast milk (Pellizzari et al. 1982). Most of the monitoring data have come from occupational studies of specific worker populations exposed to trichloroethylene. More information on exposure levels for populations living in the vicinity of hazardous waste sites is needed for estimating human exposure. 

Lipoxygenases catalyse the regio-specific and stereoselective oxygenation of unsaturated fatty acids. The mammalian enzymes have been detected in human platelets, lung, kidney, testes and white blood cells. The leukotrienes, derived from the enzymatic action of the enzyme on arachidonic acid, have effects on neutrophil migration and aggregation, release of lysosomal enzymes, capillary permeability, induction of pain and smooth muscle contraction (Salmon, 1986). 

An increase in plethora and focal dystrophic changes in the endocrine system matches clinical observations of changes in adrenal and thyroid function, as well as changes in local and general vascular dystonia, all detected in humans poisoned by OCP. Morphological changes in the brain s nerve cells conform to information on the disruption of reflex activity in the early stages of OCP exposure. 

Carotenoids are a group of more than 750 naturally occurring molecules (Britton et al. 2004) of which about 50 occur in the normal human food chain. Of these, only 24 have, so far, been detected in human plasma and tissues (Khachik et al. 1995), with only six molecules being abundant in normal human plasma (for chemical formulas see Figure 13.1). Carotenoids are subdivided into two main classes the carotenes, cyclized (e.g., P-carotene) or uncyclized (e.g., lycopene) hydrocarbons, and the xanthophylls, which have hydroxyl groups (e.g., lutein and zeaxanthin), keto-groups (e.g., canthaxanthin), or both (e.g., astaxanthin) as functional groups. 

Dietary modification of human macular pigment density. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 38, 1795-1801. Jang, Y.P., Matsuda, H., Itagaki, Y., Nakanishi, K., Sparrow, J.R., 2005. Characterization of peroxy-A2E and furan-A2E photooxidation products and detection in human and mouse retinal pigment epithelial cells lipofuscin. J Biol Chem. 280, 39732-39739. 

The fact that mineralization does not always occur justifies the large number of studies published as an effort to characterize the degradation products. In some cases these products are detected in human or animal urine, which may reach WWTPs and/or different environmental compartments. Probably, in the coming years more sophisticated analytical techniques to detect and quantify these metabolites will be developed. 

Exposure Levels in Humans. Hexachloroethane has not been detected in human tissues as a result of exposure to this chemical from environmental media. Biological monitoring data were not located for populations surrounding hazardous waste sites. Hexachloroethane has been detected in the plasma of workers at concentrations of 7.3 6 pg/L, despite the use of protective equipment including disposable overalls and compressed-air-fed visors or full-facepiece masks with filters (Selden et al. 1994). Because of protective equipment, exposure concentrations could not be related to plasma levels of hexachloroethane. 

Among the gangliosides, GM4 [ct-NeuAc-(2 — 3)-/ -Gal-(l — 0)-Cer] has a relatively simple chemical structure. It has been detected in human and chicken brain and also (119) as a major ganglioside of mouse erythrocytes, chicken-embryonic liver, and egg yolk. With the help of the azidosphingo-sine glycosylation it has been synthesized very efficiently from the neuraminic acid-containing galactosyl donor 11a-/ (Table XI) (120-122). Similarly the thio isomer was obtained from lib-/ and (120,123) the positional isomer from llc-a. 

Endrin has been detected in human breast milk (0.02-6.24 milligrams endrin in each kilogram milk fat [mg/kg]) this may be a route of exposure for nursing infants. However, no studies of endrin in breast milk in United States or Canadian populations have been conducted. 

In 1977, mirex was detected in human milk and colostrum samples of women living in upstate New York. Milk from women in Oswego and Rochester, areas adjacent to Lake Ontario (known to be contaminated with mirex), was compared with milk from women in Albany (considered to be free from mirex contamination). Mean mirex concentrations from women in each area were as follows ... 

To overcome the nonspecific interactions between ssDNA-C and CCP, Fan et al. introduced a magnetic microparticle assisted assay [54], which allows DNA detection in human serum with 0.1 nM sensitivity. In addition, DNA intercalating dyes were introduced for DNA detection as shown in Scheme 5. These special dyes have much higher fluorescence quantum yields upon intercalation with dsDNA relative to those in the presence of ssDNA or in their free states. As a result, when complementary ssDNA strands (target and probe) are present, the intercalating dye... 

Sigalas, I., Calvert, A. H., Anderson, J. J., Neal, D. E., and Lunec, J. (1996). Alternatively spliced mdm2 transcript with loss of p53 binding domain sequences transforming ability and frequent detection in human cancer. Nat. Med. 8, 912-917. 

Hydrolytic cleavage of a seven-membered ring occurs in the metabolism of chlordiazepoxide (5.82, Fig. 5.22,a) and other benzodiazepines (see also Sect. 11.9). The lactam ring opened metabolite 5.83 was detected in humans and dogs and is believed to be generated by hydrolysis of the intermediate lactam [181][182], However, the diazepine ring can be split by other mech-... 

CYP2B6 protein in frontal cortical pyramidal cells, cerebellar Purkinje cells and neurons in the substantia nigra of African Green monkey induced by chronic nicotine (Lee et al., 2006). 0.0016 P450 mRNA/GAPDHmRNAin whole human brain by RT-RT-PCR (Nishimura et al., 2003). CYP2C8 mRNA detected in human brain by RT-PCR (McFadyen et al., 1998). 

CYP2C8 mRNA detected in human brain by RT-PCR (Klose et al., 1999). 

Unchanged heptachlor has not been detected in human adipose tissue however, heptachlor epoxide was measured in adipose tissue at levels ranging from 0.0001 to 1.12 ppm (Barquet et al. 1981 Burns 1974 Greer et al. 1980 Radomski et al. 1968 Wasserman et al. 1974) and in plasma at 0.0136 0.0057 ppm (Polishuk et al. 1977b). 

Organochlorine insecticide residues were determined in samples of human milk, evaporated milk, and prepared baby formulas from various regions of Canada (Ritcey 1972). A mean concentration of 0.003 mg/kg of heptachlor epoxide was detected in human milk, with significantly lower levels in evaporated milk and prepared baby formulas. 

Exposure Levels in Humans. Heptachlor epoxide has been detected in human blood, tissues (including adipose tissue), and breast milk (Al-Omar et al. 1986 Holt et al. 1986 Larsen et al. 1971 Savage et al. 1981). The presence of heptachlor epoxide is used as an indicator of exposure to heptachlor. Current monitoring studies of heptachlor epoxide in these tissues and fluids would be helpful in assessing the extent to which populations, particularly in the vicinity of hazardous waste sites, have been exposed to heptachlor. 

Messenger RNAs for H2A.Bbd have been detected in human testis, fibroblasts and lymphocytes [77], but little is known about the amount of H2A.Bbd protein in these or other human cell types or about its presence in other species. The distribution of H2A.Bbd in chromatin was examined by expressing epitope-tagged or GFP-tagged H2A.Bbd in cultured cells. These studies revealed a striking deficiency of H2A.Bbd in the inactive X chromosome, leading to its name which stands for Histone H2A Barr-body deficient [77]. The distribution of H2A.Bbd overlapped extensively with that of H4 acetylated on lysine 12, suggesting that H2A.Bbd may preferentially associate with transcriptionally active chromatin. 

OPFRs appear to be readily metabolized and so the parent compounds are not frequently detected in human samples. TBP and TDC/PP have been detected in a few adipose tissue samples at the ng/g level [57, 58, 63]. TDC/PP has been detected in semen as well [91]. Some studies could detect TPP in blood, but it originated from the PVC packaging [92]. Marklund et al. [81] detected OPFRs in pools of human milk samples collected from the 1990s to now. In Table 4, the most important compounds are mentioned, namely TBEP, TBP, and TCiPP. Other OPFRs were determined as 5 ng/g Iw or lower. 

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