Continental

In recent years a new approach to contracting has evolved and Is gaining rapid acceptance In the United Kingdom Continental Shelf (UKCS). The concept has become known as partnering and can be seen as a progression of the incentive contract. Whilst the previously described contractual arrangements are restricted to a single well project... 

The fiscal system set by the host government determines the method by which the host nation claims its entitlement to income from the production and sale of hydrocarbons. The simplest fiscal system is the tax and royalty scheme, such as that applied to income from production in the UKCS (United Kingdom Continental Shelf). 

There are currently more than 6,500 oil and gas installations located on the continental shelves of some 53 countries. About 4,000 of these are in the US Gulf of Mexico, 950 in Asia, 700 in the Middle East and 400 in Europe. 

The Ziegler process, based on reactions discovered in the 1950s, produces predorninandy linear, primary alcohols having an even number of carbon atoms. The process was commercialized by Continental Oil Company in the United States in 1962, by Condea Petrochemie in West Germany (a joint venture of Continental Oil Company and Deutsche Erdid, A.G.) in 1964, by Ethyl Corporation in the United States in 1965, and by the USSR in 1983. 

This process is currentiy used by Vista Chemical, successor to Continental Oil Company s chemical business, and by Condea. In the Ethyl Corporation process dilute sulfuric acid is used in place of water in the hydrolysis step producing alum rather than alumina. 

On average, fluorine is about as abundant as chlorine in the accessible surface of the earth including oceans. The continental cmst averages about 650 ppm fluorine. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks all show abundances in the range of 200 to 1000 ppm. As of 1993, fluorspar was still the principal source of fluorine for industry. 

In unalloyed steel containers formamide discolors slowly during shipment and storage. Both copper and brass are also subject to corrosion, particularly in the presence of water. Lead is less readily attacked. Aluminum and stainless steel are resistant to attack by formamide and should be used for shipping and storage containers where the color of the product is important or when metallic impurities must be minimized. Formamide attacks natural mbber but not neoprene. As a result of the solvent action of formamide, most protective paints and finishes are unsatisfactory when in contact with formamide. Therefore, formamide is best shipped in containers made of stainless steel or in dmms made of, or coated with, polyethylene. Formamide supphed by BASF is packed in Lupolen dmms (230 kg) or Lupolen canisters (60 kg) both in continental Europe and overseas. 

As shown in Table 8, U.S. distribution of oil and natural gas reserves is centered in Alaska, Cahfomia, Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and the U.S. outer-continental shelf. Alaska reserves include both the Pmdhoe Bay deposits and the Cook Inlet fields. Cahfomia deposits include those in Santa Barbara, the Wilmington Eield, the Elk Hills Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1 at Bakersfield, and other offshore oil deposits. The Yates Pield, Austin Chalk formation, and Permian Basin are among the producing sources of petroleum and natural gas in Texas. 

Fig. 3. (a) General locations of hydrothemial power plants in the continental United States (6). Power is produced directiy from hydrothermal steam indicated by the steam plume at The Geysers in northern California. At all other locations, hot water resources are utilized for power production. In 1993, a hydrothermal power plant also came on line on the island of Hawaii, (b) Location of The Geysers steam-dominated hydrothermal field (D) in Lake and Sonoma counties, within the boundaries of the Cleadake—Geysers thermal anomaly (B). 

The ocean is host to a variety and quantity of inorganic raw materials equal to or surpassiag the resources of these materials available on land. Inorganic raw materials are defined here as any mineral deposit found ia the marine environment. The mineral resources are classified generally as iadustrial minerals, mineral sands, phosphorites, metalliferous oxides, metalliferous sulfides, and dissolved minerals and iaclude geothermal resources, precious corals, and some algae. The resources are mosdy unconsoHdated, consoHdated, or fluid materials which are chemically enriched ia certain elements and are found ia or upon the seabeds of the continental shelves and ocean basias. These may be classified according to the environment and form ia which they occur (Table 1) and with few exceptions are similar to traditional mineral deposits on land. 

Deposits that can be recovered without having to use explosives or other primary energy sources to break up the material in place ate called unconsoHdated deposits. These may be found stratified or disseminated as sutficial or subsurface deposits on the continental shelf or in deep ocean basins. 

Continental Shelf. A variety of terms may be appHed to deposits in the continental shelf (conshelf) including beach, bank, alluvial, strand-line, heavy mineral, or placet. These contain mostly industrial materials, mineral sands, or precious metals (Table 1). 

Ocean Basins. Ocean basins are primarily formed from oceanic basalts and maybe interspersed with continental remnants, ridges, seamounts, or volcanic islands rising from the depths. Average water depth is around 4000 m but the most significant mineralization is generally found at 5000 m for manganese nodules, 4000 m for biogenic oozes, and 3000 m for hydrothermal metalliferous sulfides. The area is poorly explored, however. 

Continental Shelf. Most consohdated mineral deposits found on the continental shelf are identical to those found on land and are only fortuitously submerged. Exceptions include those laid down in shallow marine seas or basins in earlier geochemical environments such as bedded ironstones, limestones, potash, and phosphorites. 

Fluid deposits are defined as those which can be recovered in fluid form by pumping, in solution, or as particles in a slurry. Petroleum products and Frasch process sulfur are special cases. At this time no vaUd distinction is made between resources on the continental shelf and in the deep oceans. However, deep seabed deposits of minerals which can be separated by differential solution are expected to be amenable to fluid mining methods in either environment. 

M. J. Cmickshank and C. L. Morgan, Synthesis andMnalysis of Existing Information KegardingEnvironmental Effects of Marine Mining, consulting report to Continental Shelf Associates for U.S. MMS Contract No. 14-35-0001-30588, U.S. Dept, of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 1992. 

Shipping. Distribution of anhydrous ammonia ia the United States is fackitated by pipeline, where three companies serve 11 states having lines almost 4800 km ia total length, by water, where over 4800 km of river barge transport capabkity exists, by rak, where an extensive network ia the continental United States has tie-ias to Canada and Mexico, and by tmck, used mainly for iaterstate or local dehvery. 

CTL Continental Chemical Corp. REN Ruetgers Nease Corp. 

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