Brainstorming

A form of the brainstorming technique can also be used by an individual. The individual follows the same rules used for a group session combination of ideas, postponement of evaluation, and an emphasis on obtaining a large number of ideas. The individual brainstorming session need not take more than a few minutes. Again, the ideas are recorded and evaluated at a later time. 

One of the simplest ideas for generating new ideas is to make a checklist. The checklist encourages the user to examine various points, areas, and design possibilities. For example, suppose that you were attempting to improve a certain device. You might make a checklist that includes  

The most important factor for a successful brainstorming session is to have attendees who have sound technical and operational knowledge. The number of attendees 

The next step is the review of the fractionation system with the following opportunities in mind change column conditions to maximize desirable products, avoid product specification give-away, and reduce reboiling duty. Other opportunities 

Sufficient time should be dedicated for brainstorming without interruption from other matters. Usually, 2 h could be good for one session and several sessions may be required for a process unit. 

It is a group activity, optimally between five to ten people. At least two-thirds of the people invited to the brainstorming session should have ideally a variety of experience obtained in different fields. Preferably an experienced, neutral facilitator should run the session, whose job is to record the ideas on a flip chart, electronic white board or other appropriate technology and to stimulate and orchestrate the flow of ideas from the participants. For somebody inexperienced in facilitating a brainstorming session there are some guidelines to be followed. 

Uses information for its meaning, is analytical One thing follows from another Concentrates on what is relevant Moves in the most likely directions Is a closed procedure 

It is the job of the facilitator to keep firm but unobtrusive control of the session and to make it enjoyable. If the discussion flags ideas must be injected. 

Osborn identified nine principle ways of manipulating a subject, which were rearranged by Bob Eberle into the mnemonic SCAMMPERR. 

Substitute something Combine it with something else Adapt something to it Magnify or add to it Modify it 

The traditional notion of the family with the father as breadwinner in the public sphere of paid employment and mother as carer in the private world of home is increasingly remote from the reality of modem day households. .. 

You will notice that these writers are concerned with different ideas about what the family means rather than offering any set definition. One of the important aspects of university study is that it can invite us to question our currently held assumptions and ideas, so that, for example, you can come to compare what the family has meant to you with how your understanding changes from studying it as a part of a university course. 

As in the practice writing exercise, use your own topic for the following task if you prefer. 

Now compare the brainstorming ideas that you have noted with the list below. Can you think about where your own ideas have come from  

New kinds of family emerging - e.g. single parents, shared parenting. High rate of divorce. 

This is a great place to start whether trying to determine the cause of a problem, find a solution to one, or explore ways to pursue an opportunity. Invite a wide variety of participants. For example, if the problem at hand is how to reduce the drag on an automobile component invite representative engineers, scientists, technologists, technicians, and administrative personnel seek representatives of all functions that are involved in any aspect of automobile design and manufacture. 

Create a non-threatening environment so that all participants feel free to say what they think. Provide background and pose the problem and then invite, in fact, expect everyone to offer ideas being careful not to evaluate any ideas during the brainstorming session. Great ideas often appear because of 

Go for quantity, not quality (Byrne, 2005) and, remember, absolutely no evaluation of ideas during the brainstorming session. As noted by poet and critic Mark Van Doren, Bring ideas in and entertain them royally, for one of them may be the king.  

as observed by scientist Linus Pauling, the best way to have a good idea is to have lots of ideas.  

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What-If Analysis. The what-if analysis is simply a brainstorming technique that asks a variety of questions related to situations that can occur. For instance, in regards to a pump, the question What if the pump stops mnning might be asked. An analysis of this situation then follows. The answer should provide a description of the resulting consequence. Recommendations then foUow, if required, on the measures taken to prevent an accident. 

The cost of performing the hazard identification step depends on the size of the problem and the specific techniques used. Techniques such as brainstorming, what-if analyses, or checklists tend to be less expensive than other more structured methods. Hazard and operability (HAZOP) analyses and failure modes and effects analyses (FMEAs) involve many people and tend to be more expensive. But, you can have greater confidence in the exhaustiveness of HAZOP and FMEA techniques—their rigorous approach helps ensure completeness. However, no technique can guarantee that all hazards or potential accidents have been identified. Figure 8 is an example of the hazards identified in a HAZOP study. Hazard identification can require from 10% to 25% of the total effort in a QRA study. 

The focus will depend on the overall objectives of the audit. A good way to approach this is by conducting a brainstorming session with operators and environmental specialists. 

Often, the walkthrough and analysis of the process flow sheets lead to an early identification of P2 and waste-reduction opportunities. By studying the process flow sheets and information gathered from the walkthrough, and by conducting brainstorming sessions with team members, the team will be able to identify sources... 

What-if is a creative, brainstorming examination of a process or operation conducted by knowledgeable individuals asking questions. It is not as structured as, for example, RA/OP or FMEA. It requires the analysts to adapt the basic concept to the specific application. 

What-ll/Checklist combines the creative, brainstorming features of a What-lf with the systematic features of a Checklist. The What-lf analysis considers accidents beyond the checklist the check list lends a systematic structure to the What-lf analysis. A What-lf7Checklist examines the potential consequences of accident scenarios at a more general level than some of the more detailed I l liA methods. It can be used for any type of process at any life cycle stage. 

The PSA (Miller, 1990, Wyss, 1990a, 1990b) consisted of three steps 1) issues important to safety were identified by "brainstorms" constructed as an accident progression event tree, 2) deterministic calculations were performed on the issues when information was not available from previous calculations or similar systems, and 3) information from step 2 was used to elicii e.vpert Judgement of the issues identified in step 1. 

Discuss approach to management systems (90 minutes) brainstorm representative management systems... 

Brainstorming helps draw out participants ideas in raw form. To make the most of this technique, you must set some groundrules, the most important of which is that brainstorming is non-judgmental. Team members must be encouraged to voice ideas without fear of criticism from the leader or their teammates. 

Questions posed in brainstorming should be open-ended (as opposed to yes-or-no) and relevant to the task at hand. Be sure to record responses accurately, and in enough detail that you can recall their substance for further discussion. Some examples of useful brainstorming questions are ... 

Leading a brainstorming session takes practice. Try for a fast pace and be sensitive to participants move on to another question as soon as you sense that ideas are becoming forced. 

Brainstorming often throws off valuable ideas or information that may be off the immediate topic (e.g., we really should review and update ourMSDSs"). These should be encouraged and recorded for future use. 

Note Brainstorming is only one of many useful techniques for generating ideas and productive discussion. Interested readers should consult the reference list in this volume s appendix. 

Another company may accomplish the same goal less formally. An ad hoc committee (at the corporate or facility level) might brainstorm on resource needs, discuss priority items with an empowered manager, and gain veriaal approval. The difference is one of style, as opposed to substance in both cases the task of identifying tools and training has been addressed. 

Try using brainstorming techniques to identify representative management systems currently in place within your company. 

If you have used brainstorming to identify some existing management systems, the resulting list may be lengthy. One way to consider these systems is to subject them to further definition, drawing distinctions such as the following ... 

A simple way to define these is to select one of the priority elements you have identified and brainstorm all of the tasks required to address it, as shown in Figure 5-3. 

As a way to start, you may find it useful to assemble all of the documents the team has produced that discuss PSM benefits use this as a springboard for brainstorming, asking such questions as ... 

Now you are ready to generate alternative strategies that might lead you to your objective. To generate these alternatives, try brainstorming with your project team. 

Brainstorming is a free-form process that taps into the creative potential of a group through association of ideas. Association works as a two-way current when a group member voices an idea, this stimulates ideas from others, which in turn leads to more ideas from the one who initiated the idea. 

Begin by listing all potential causes or combinations of causes, using a brainstorming approach. Then, systematically rule out each cause. Do not eliminate uncommon causes too quickly—if it were an easy problem it would have already been taken care of it. Additionally, ensure that limits outlined by process and equipment documentation are consistent with the actual operation of the unit. 

The next sections describe strategies for innovation to reduce overall environmental impact for each of the five different categories described above. These can be used to assist the brainstorming process. 

The what-if/checklist analysis method combines the creative, brainstorming features of the what-if analysis with the systematic features of the checklist analysis. The PrHA team uses the what-if analysis method to brainstorm the types of accidents that can occur within a process. Then the team uses one or more checklists to help fill in any gaps. Finally, the team members suggest ways for reducing the risk of operating the process. The what-if analysis encourages the PrHA team to consider potential accident events and consequences that are beyond the experience of the authors of a good checklist and, thus, are not covered on the checklist. Conversely, the checklist lends a systematic nature to the what-if analysis. 

For example, a traditional checklist is, by definition, based on the process experience the author accumulates from various sources. The checklist is likely to provide incomplete insights into the design, procedural, and operating features necessary for a safe process. The what-if part of the analysis uses a team s creativity and experience to brainstorm potential accident scenarios. However, because the what-if analysis method is usually not as detailed, systematic, or thorough as some of the more regimented approaches (e.g., HAZOP study, FMEA), use of a checklist permits the PrHA team to fill in any gaps in their thought process. 

The number of relevant facts accumulated in an accident investigation is usually limited. Further investigation usually cannot uncover additional facts. A deeper analysis of the facts, however, often leads to new conclusions and recommendations. This deeper analysis is, for example, similar to a brainstorming session to develop new applications for a common house brick. New and interesting applications will continue to surface. 

After the problem is specifically defined, then you can have the client brainstorm a variety of solutions for the problem. You may have to suggest a couple of ideas in the beginning to get the client used to the style of brainstorming. Tell the client, All alternatives should be considered, so throw everything that occurs... 

If a physical examination is not possible, then a therapist or counselor will have to assess physical health in an interview format. The therapist can ask specific questions about health conditions and symptoms in the intake interview, and then can address specific health concerns through referrals as part of the treatment plan. It may be that a particular non-life-threatening health problem cannot be addressed during the course of therapy or treatment, but can be listed as a quality-of-life problem in the treatment plan to be addressed at a later date. In that way, the therapist and client can brainstorm ideas about treating the problem while in therapy and develop a plan of action for addressing the health concern after therapy is completed. 

Brainstorming can be quite helpful in developing this treatment plan. So remembering the process for brainstorming (see Chapter 3), have your client generate a wide range of possible goals related to the future, at first without concern... 

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