Body fluids electrolytes

Sodium, potassium, and chloride, as ions (Na, K, and Gl ), are essential to electrolyte balance in body fluids. Electrolyte balance, in turn, is essential for fluid balance, acid-base balance, and transmission of nerve impulses. Table salt is the principal source of sodium and chloride ions, and dietary deficiencies are unlikely. When there is extreme fluid loss through vomiting, diarrhea, or traumatic injury, electrolytes must be supplied to restore their concentration in body fluids. 

Armstrong LE (2002) Caffeine, body fluid-electrolyte balance and exercise performance. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism 12 205-222. 

Corticosteroids exhibit a wide range of physiological effects One important func tion IS to assist m maintaining the proper electrolyte balance m body fluids They also play a vital regulatory role m the metabolism of carbohydrates and m mediating the alter gic response... 

As we have seen in this chapter steroids have a number of functions in human physiology Cholesterol is a component part of cell mem branes and is found in large amounts in the brain Derivatives of cholic acid assist the digestion of fats in the small intestine Cortisone and its derivatives are involved in maintaining the electrolyte balance in body fluids The sex hormones responsible for mascu line and feminine characteristics as well as numerous aspects of pregnancy from conception to birth are steroids... 

A 0-9% salt solution is considered to be isotonic with blood. Other electrolytes present include bicarbonate ions (HCOj ) and small amounts of potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, sulphate and organic acid ions. Included among the complex compounds and present in smaller amounts are phospholipids, cholesterols, natural fats, proteins, glucose and amino acids. Under normal conditions the extracellular body fluid is slightly alkaline with a pH of 7-4. ... 

Fretting in air-saturated aqueous electrolytes, such as seawater or body fluids , produces enhanced removal of material by stimulation of electrochemical reactions, increasing the reaction rates by factors of 10 to 200 compared with air, depending on the frequency. The importance of the chemical... 

Discuss preadministration and ongoing assessment activities the nurse should perform on the patient taking an electrolyte or a solution to manage body fluids. 

Discuss ways to promote an optimal response to therapy and important points to keep in mind when educating patients about the use of an electrolyte ora solution to manage body fluids. 

Discuss the adverse reactions associated with the administration of a solution or electrolyte used in the management of body fluids. 

The composition of body fluids remains relatively constant despite the many demands placed on the body each day. On occasion, these demands cannot be met, and electrolytes and fluids must be given in an attempt to restore equilibrium. The solutions used in the management of body fluids discussed in this chapter include blood plasma, plasma protein fractions, protein substrates, energy substrates, plasma proteins, electrolytes, and miscellaneous replacement fluids. Electrolytes are electrically charged particles (ions) that are essential for normal cell function and are involved in various metabolic activities. This chapter discusses the use of electrolytes to replace one or more electrolytes that may be lost by the body. The last section of this chapter gives a brief overview of total parenteral nutrition (TPN). 

Because disturbances in fluid balance are routinely encountered in clinical medicine, it is essential to have a thorough understanding of body fluid compartments and the therapeutic use of fluids. Similarly, disturbances in serum sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium are ubiquitous and must be mastered by all clinicians. Dysregulation of fluid and/or electrolyte status has serious implications regarding the concepts of drug absorption, volumes of distribution, and toxicity. Similarly, many medications can disrupt fluid and/or electrolyte balance as an unintended consequence. 

The potent antidiuretic hormone AVP orchestrates the regulation of free water absorption, body fluid osmolality, cell contraction, blood volume, and blood pressure through stimulation of three G-protein-coupled receptor subtypes Vi-vascular types a and b, V2-renal, and V3-pituitary. Increased AVP secretion is the trademark of several pathophysiological disorders, including heart failure, impaired renal function, liver cirrhosis, and SIADH. As a consequence, these patients experience excess water retention or inadequate free-water excretion, which results in the dilution of sodium concentrations, frequently manifesting as clinical hyponatremia (serum sodium concentration <135mmol/L). This electrolyte imbalance increases mortality rates by 60-fold. Selective antagonism of the AVP V2 receptor promotes water... 

All eukaryote cells are faced with differences in intracellular solute composition when compared with the external environment. Many eukaryotes live in seawater, and have cells which are either bathed in seawater directly, or have an extracellular body fluid which is broadly similar to seawater [3]. Osmoregulation and body fluid composition in animals has been extensively reviewed (e.g. [3,15-21]), and reveals that many marine invertebrates have body fluids that are iso-osmotic with seawater, but may regulate some electrolytes (e.g. SO2-) at lower levels than seawater. Most vertebrates have a body fluid osmotic pressure (about 320mOsmkg 1), which is about one-third of that in seawater (lOOOmOsmkg ), and also regulate some electrolytes in body fluids at... 

Figure 1. Solute transfer across an idealised eukaryote epithelium. The solute must move from the bulk solution (e.g. the external environment, or a body fluid) into an unstirred layer comprising water/mucus secretions, prior to binding to membrane-spanning carrier proteins (and the glycocalyx) which enable solute import. Solutes may then move across the cell by diffusion, or via specific cytosolic carriers, prior to export from the cell. Thus the overall process involves 1. Adsorption 2. Import 3. Solute transfer 4. Export. Some electrolytes may move between the cells (paracellular) by diffusion. The driving force for transport is often an energy-requiring pump (primary transport) located on the basolateral or serosal membrane (blood side), such as an ATPase. Outward electrochemical gradients for other solutes (X+) may drive import of the required solute (M+, metal ion) at the mucosal membrane by an antiporter (AP). Alternatively, the movement of X+ down its electrochemical gradient could enable M+ transport in the same direction across the membrane on a symporter (SP). A, diffusive anion such as chloride. Kl-6 refers to the equilibrium constants for each step in the metal transfer process, Kn indicates that there may be more than one intracellular compartment involved in storage. See the text for details...

Concentrations of electrolytes in body fluids and in pharmaceutical solutions are usually expressed as mEq/L or Eq/L. In institutional practice, various electrolyte solutions are administered to correct electrolyte imbalances. The doses of electrolytes are calculated either in milliequivalents or in metric weights. 

Volumes of the intracellular and extracellular body fluid compartments are kept constant by the osmotic pressure, which is created by the concentration of dissolved ions (electrolytes) in each compartment. The normal osmotic concentration is in the range of 280-310 mOsm/L. 

Mixed aqueous electrolyte solutions such as body fluids, rivers, lakes, oceans and, at times, laboratory and industrial fluids present important problems which are not found 1n single electrolyte solutions. New perceptions and results are being obtained in complex media and some examples will be covered in this paper. 

Electrolytes Substances that break up into ions (electrically charged particles) when they are dissolved in body fluids or water. Some examples are sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium. Electrolytes are primarily responsible for the movement of nutrients into cells, and the movement of wastes out of cells. [NIH]... 

Severe emesis - Severe emesis should not be treated with an antiemetic drug alone where possible, establish cause of vomiting. Direct primary emphasis toward restoration of body fluids and electrolyte balance, and relief of fever and causative disease process. Avoid overhydration which may result in cerebral edema. 

Diuretics are compounds that therapeutically affect the mammalian nephral excretion balance, increasing the net excretion of water and solutes. Thus, they modify the excretion of water and the concentration of salts in the body through the kidney so as to ensure a constant volume of body fluids. Their functions influence blood pressure and the actions of several organs. Some of the leading diuretics and electrolytes and the extent of their prescription are summarized in... 

Mecftanism of Action Sodium Is a major cat ion of extracellular fluid that controls water distribution, fluid and electrolyte balance, and osmotic pressure of body fluids it also maintains acid-base balance. 

Because of the use of various electrolyte systems, pH gradients, and not least an electric field, some complexes would not survive the separation. It is therefore necessary that the species to be separated are both thermodynamically and kineti-cally stable. Recently, Bocek and Foret have reviewed the application of isotachophoresis to the separation of inorganic species. This technique appears to be well-suited for the study of the distribution of metabolites of metal-containing drugs in body fluids. A survey of the application of electrophoretic techniques to biological materials can be found in the book edited by Deyl... 

A dialysate solution of a composition appropriate to the patient is prepared by diluting with water one of concentrated dialysates of standard compositions that are available commercially. Typical compositions of diluted dialysates are as follows Na 130-140mEql , K 2-2.5 mEql , Ca" 2.5-3.5 mEql , Mg + 1.0-1.5mEql", Cl 100-110 mEql HCOj" 30-35 mEql b glucose 0 or 1-2 gl , osmolarity 270-300 mOsm 1 T Electrolytes are added to the dialysate mainly to prevent electrolytes in the body fluid from moving into the dialysate, and sometimes to control the concentration of some ions such as Na in the body fluid at an appropriate level. 

Although the stratum corneum acts as a simple physical barrier to outside influences, skin tissue as a whole is very active. It is crucial in maintaining the body s homeostasis, its essential steady-state environment. Skin maintains temperature and balance of electrolytes, the dissolved salts in internal body fluids. It is metabolically active and participates in hormonal and immune regulatory processes. More than serving as a passive barrier, it is proactive in response to xenobiotic insults and can be damaged in the defensive process by developing rashes and other symptoms. 

Answer (a) It increases [cAMP], (b) The observations suggest that cAMP regulates Na+ permeability, (c) Replace lost body fluids and electrolytes. 

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