Biomonitoring surveys

WWF (World Wildlife Fund). 2003. Contamination The Results of WWF s Biomonitoring Survey. Brussels World Wildlife Fund [online]. Available http //www.wwf.org.uk/file library/pdf/biomonitoringresults.pdf [accessed Nov. 18, 2005]. 

The British public does not exhibit a particularly strong or pronounced opinion of the chemical industry, but its view does tend to be negative [433, 430]. Media attention has recently been drawn to UK NGO studies identifying synthetic chemicals in human blood. One such biomonitoring survey was reported by the WWF-UK interviewee as... 

Contamination The Results of WWF s Biomonitoring Survey, WWF-UK National Biomonitoring, WWF-UK, Goldaming, Surrey, UK, 2003. 

The above can be illustrated by data taken from several multi-element air pollution biomonitor surveys carried out at IRI The air pollution surveys commonly include a number of soil-associated elements (e.g. Al, Fe, Sc, Cr, Th) and several rare earth elements (Kuik et al., 1993a,b). In the Factor Analysis interpretation of the data on all selected 20 elements, the soil indicator elements serve to extract a soil-factor (De Bruin and Wolterbeek, 1984), based on which, for all individual elements, site-specific soil-associated fractions of the total concentrations can be calculated (Kuik et al., 1993a,b). 

Wolterbeek, H.Th., Bode, P., 1995. Strategies in sampling and sample handling in the context of large-scaled plant biomonitoring surveys of trace element air pollution. Sci. Total Environ. 176, 33 3. 

Figure 6. Twigs of Pinus sylvestris covered by Hypogymnia physodes and Usnea hirta, detached from trees in a natural forest in Peuhu, Oulunsalo, 15 km south-west of Oulu, N Finland, and resuspended in the same site as control samples, in the frame of a biomonitoring survey in the Oulu region (Garty et al., 1996).

World Wildlife Fund. 2005. Generations X Results of World Wildlife Fund s European Family Biomonitoring Survey, http //assets.panda.org/downloads/generationsx.pdf... 

In subsequent chapters, we provide an overview of SPMD fundamentals and applications (Chapter 2) the theory and modeling which includes the extrapolation of SPMD concentrations to ambient environmental concentrations (Chapter 3) study considerations such as the necessary precautions and procedures during SPMD transport, deployment, and retrieval (Chapter 4) the analytical chemistry and associated quality control for the analysis of SPMD dialysates or extracts (Chapter 5) a survey and brief description of bioassays-biomarkers used to screen the toxicity of SPMD environmental extracts (Chapter 6) discussions on how HOC concentrations in SPMDs may or may not relate to similarly exposed biomonitoring organisms (Chapter 7) and selected examples of environmental studies using SPMDs (Chapter 8). In addition, two appendices are included which provide... 

The current scientific infrastructure to support the committee s research recommendations is severely limited. Improvements in research-related infrastructure are needed to support these recommendations and to enhance the value of biomonitoring activities. The infrastructure needs encompass enhancing laboratory capabilities, expanding the scope and utility of CDC s National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data, maximizing the use of collected human samples, and fostering international biomonitoring collaboration. Many of these recommendations for infrastructure improvement are cost-effective because they rely on expansion of structures and activities that are already in place. 

The most important question for biomonitoring efforts to address is whether exposure to a chemical causes health effects. Few data are available on most of the chemicals measured in population studies, such as NHANES, to address that question (Metcalf and Orloff 2004). For example, the Government Accountability Office (GAO 2005) reports that EPA has limited data on the health and environmental risks posed by chemicals now used in commerce. A survey of risk-assessment practitioners on the extent to which biomarkers are used in risk assessment concluded that the absence of chemical-specific data (for example, toxicologic and epidemiologic data) was the primary limitation in using exposure biomarkers in risk assessment (Maier et al. 2004). 

Current biomonitoring efforts can be categorized as survey projects and research projects. The objective of survey projects typically is to advance public health by producing information about the prevalence of exposure to environmental toxicants based on periodic monitoring (European... 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention—National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) National Reports on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals Provides continuing assessment of U.S. population s exposure to environmental chemicals using biomonitoring data from NHANES. First National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals (First Report) was issued in March 2001. Second Report, released in January 2003, presents biomonitoring exposure data on 116 environmental chemicals for noninstitutionalized, civilian U.S. population in 1999-2000. Third report was released in July 2005 and includes data on 148 chemicals (CDC 2005). 

The AHS, a collaborative research effort between the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health and EPA, is a prospective occupational study of 89,658 pesticide appliers and their spouses in Iowa and North Carolina assembled between 1993 and 1997 to evaluate risk factors for disease in rural farm populations (Blair et al. 2005). It is being conducted in three phases—phase I (1993-1997), phase II (1999-2003), and phase III (2005)—and includes only limited biomonitoring. Data are gathered with questionnaires to determine pesticide use and exposures, work practices, and other relevant exposures from buccal cell collection with dietary surveys and with interviews to determine updated pesticide exposures (Agricultural Health Study 2005). 

Of the European studies reviewed, many measured heavy metals, cotinine, PCBs, pesticides, PAHs, dioxins, phthalates, and VOCs. Germany has taken a substantial lead in this respect through its comprehensive population-based surveys (German Environment Surveys) and concerted efforts to develop health-protective reference values for the general population. In addition European countries have been actively involved in occupational biomonitoring efforts. In fact, some countries have biomonitoring surveillance programs that have been required by law. 

Reis, M.F., C. Sampaio, M. Melim, and J.P. Miguel. 2004. Environmental Health Survey Programs (ProVEpAs) in Portugal. Presentation at the Session on Biomonitoring, The European Environment and Health Action Plan 2004-2010 Implementation, December 2-3, 2004, Egmond aan Zee, The Netherlands. 

Schober, S. 2005. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) Environmental Biomonitoring Measures, Interpretation of Results. Presented at the Second Meeting on Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Toxicants, April 28, 2005, Washington, DC. 

In the most straightforward risk-based approach, epidemiologic studies have developed exposure-response relationships based on biomarker measurements in hair, blood, urine, or other matrices (e.g., mercury, lead) (see Figure 5-2a). The relationships can be applied directly to new biomonitoring data to determine where on the exposure-response curve any person is. That may facilitate an understanding of risk, but it does not analyze sources of exposure, so other techniques (such as environmental sampling and behavioral surveys) may be needed to assess where the exposure came from. 

Although biomonitoring data constitute a key body of knowledge about the distribution of exposure, relatively few risk assessments have been based on biomarker-response relationships established in epidemiologic studies (WHO 2001). In a recent informal survey of leading risk-assessment prac-... 

It may be possible to use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map biomonitoring results to determine whether there is a spatial pattern in exposure concentrations. This could be overlaid with GIS maps of environmental data (for example, air or water pollution or distribution of waste sites) to determine whether biomonitoring results correspond to specific environmental sources. However, mapping techniques are generally not useful for sporadic, localized sources such as food or consumer products. In such cases, survey questionnaires and sampling of the home environment are of more direct use in understanding exposure sources. 

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