Atomic spectrometry electron spectroscopy

Auger electron spectroscopy Phosphorous/nitrogen-selective alkali/flame ionisation detector Atomic force microscopy Atomic fluorescence spectrometry All-glass heated inlet system... 

The elemental composition, oxidation state, and coordination environment of species on surfaces can be determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) techniques. Both techniques have a penetration depth of 5-20 atomic layers. Especially XPS is commonly used in characterization of electrocatalysts. One common example is the identification and quantification of surface functional groups such as nitrogen species found on carbon-based catalysts.26-29 Secondary Ion Mass spectrometry (SIMS) and Ion Scattering Spectroscopy are alternatives which are more surface sensitive. They can provide information about the surface composition as well as the chemical bonding information from molecular clusters and have been used in characterization of cathode electrodes.30,31 They can also be used for depth profiling purposes. The quantification of the information, however, is rather difficult.32... 

Atomic absorption spectrometry, EPR spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis had shown that the D. gigas hydrogenase contains one nickel and twelve ( 1) iron atoms, eleven of which are distributed among the three [FeS] clusters. This strongly suggested that the remaining twelfth iron atom could be one of the two metal ions revealed by the active site electron density. To verify this... 

Another important characteristic is that ion beams can produce a variety of the secondary particles/photons such as secondary ions/atoms, electrons, positrons. X-rays, gamma rays, and so on, which enable us to use ion beams as analytical probes. Ion beam analyses are characterized by the respectively detected secondary species, such as secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), sputtered neutral mass spectrometry (SNMS), electron spectroscopy, particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE), nuclear reaction analyses (NRA), positron emission tomography (PET), and so on. 

The most frequently applied analytical methods used for characterizing bulk and layered systems (wafers and layers for microelectronics see the example in the schematic on the right-hand side) are summarized in Figure 9.4. Besides mass spectrometric techniques there are a multitude of alternative powerful analytical techniques for characterizing such multi-layered systems. The analytical methods used for determining trace and ultratrace elements in, for example, high purity materials for microelectronic applications include AAS (atomic absorption spectrometry), XRF (X-ray fluorescence analysis), ICP-OES (optical emission spectroscopy with inductively coupled plasma), NAA (neutron activation analysis) and others. For the characterization of layered systems or for the determination of surface contamination, XPS (X-ray photon electron spectroscopy), SEM-EDX (secondary electron microscopy combined with energy disperse X-ray analysis) and... 

GD-OES (glow discharge optical emission spectrometry) are applied. AES (auger electron spectroscopy), AFM (atomic force microscopy) and TRXF (transmission reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis) have been successfully used, especially in the semiconductor industry and in materials research. 

The techniques considered in this chapter are infrared spectroscopy (or vibrational spectroscopy), nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (or electronic spectroscopy) and mass spectrometry. Absorption of infrared radiation is associated with the energy differences between vibrational states of molecules nuclear magnetic resonance absorption is associated with changes in the orientation of atomic nuclei in an applied magnetic field absorption of ultraviolet and visible radiation is associated with changes in the energy states of the valence electrons of molecules and mass spectrometry is concerned... 

Atomic spectrometry is based on the generation of free atoms which can absorb or emit radiation due to defined transitions of the valence electrons of the outer shell of the atom. Comprehensive and critical reviews of atomic spectroscopy and its uses appear in Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry. Advances in AAS and fluorescence spectrometry have been reviewed by Hill et al. (1991). Branch etal. (1991) has updated the use of AS for the analysis of clinical and biological materials, foods and beverages and discussed methods for individual elements. Cresser et al. (1991, 1992) have reviewed environmental analysis, including those for soils and plants and have included summary tables of methods. 

XRD, X-ray diffraction XRF, X-ray fluorescence AAS, atomic absorption spectrometry ICP-AES, inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry ICP-MS, Inductively coupled plasma/mass spectroscopy IC, ion chromatography EPMA, electron probe microanalysis SEM, scanning electron microscope ESEM, environmental scanning electron microscope HRTEM, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy LAMMA, laser microprobe mass analysis XPS, X-ray photo-electron spectroscopy RLMP, Raman laser microprobe analysis SHRIMP, sensitive high resolution ion microprobe. PIXE, proton-induced X-ray emission FTIR, Fourier transform infrared. 

The surface and the bulk PSC crystal quality was studied by reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Surface chemical compositions were determined with Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). Atomic force microscopy (AFM), transmission and scanning electron microscopy (TEM and SEM) were used to monitor PSC morphology and structure. 

ESCA electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy) ESI electrospray ionization ET-AAS (Also denoted GFAAS, EAAS, EA-AAS, ETAAS, ETA-AAS) electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry ETA-CFS electrothermal atomization -coherent forward scattering (atomic magneto-optic rotation) spectrometry ETAES electrothermal atomization atomic emission spectrometry ETAES electrothermal atomization atomic fluorescence spectrometry ETA-LEI electrothermal atomization -laser enhanced ionization spectrometry... 

Until recently, analytical investigations of surfaces were handicapped by the lack of suitable methods and instrumentation capable of supplying reliable and relevant information. Electron diffraction is an excellent way to determine the geometric arrangement of the atoms on a surface, but it does not answer the question as to the chemical composition of the upper atomic layer. The use of the electron microprobe (EMP), a powerful instrument for chemical analyses, is unfortunately limited because of its extended information depth. The first real success in the analysis of a surface layer was achieved by Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) [16,17], followed a little later by other techniques such as electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA) and secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), etc. [18-23]. All these techniques use some type of emission (photons, electrons, atoms, molecules, ions) caused by excitation of the surface state. Each of these techniques provides a substantial amount of information. To obtain the optimum Information it is, however, often beneficial to combine several techniques. 

AES Atomic emission spectrometry Auger electron spectroscopy... 

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