Antimony in urine

Delves HT, Sieniawska CE, Fell GS, et al. 1997. Determination of antimony in urine, blood and serum and in liver and lung tissues of infants by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Analyst 122 1323-1329. 

Anodic stripping voltammetry was in use already in 1972 to determine Bi in plasma [120]. Bismuth is one of the elements most easily determined with this method. It can be deposited on electrodes at potentials at which most other elements ate in solution. Glassy carbon electrodes coated with films of mercury [100,121-124], but also of gold [101,125], are used. As reference served calomel or silver/silver chloride electrodes [121]. Platinum foils or wires were used as counterelectrodes. At -0.7 V carbon electrodes are precoated with mercury from acid Hg(II) or gold from acid Au(III) solutions. To deposit Bi on the electrode -0.2 to -0.3 V is a sufficient potential for preelectrolysis, but mostly higher voltages are chosen to determine other metals as well. Bi is stripped fiom the electrode at potentials of about -0.10 to -0.16 V. Only some elements interfere with Bi, such as arsenic, mercury, copper, and antimony. Copper interferes at high concentrations and is separated by extraction [101]. Arsenic or antimony in urine are oxidized to their pentavalent states [125]. 

Delves, H. T, Sieniawska, C. E., Eell, G. S., Lyon, T. D. B., Dezateux, C., Cullen, A., Variend, S., Bonham, J. R., and Chantler, S. M. (1997) Detamination of antimony in urine, blood, serum and in liver and lung tissues of infants by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Analyst, 122,1323-29. 

It is pentavalent antimonial. It inhibits -SH dependent enzymes and block glycolytic fatty acid oxidation pathways. It is rapidly absorbed after IM injection and excreted unchanged in urine. Used in cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis. It is given parenterally (20 mg/kg/day IM/IV) for three weeks in cutaneous leishmaniasis and for four weeks in visceral and mucocutaneous disease. 

ACGIH TLV TWA 2.5 mg(F)/mh BEL 3 mg/g creatinine of fluorides in urine prior to shift 10 mg/g creatinine of fluorides in urine at end of shift TWA 0.5 mg(Sb)/m NIOSH REL TWA 0.5 mg(Sb)/m3 DOT CLASSIFICATION 8 Label Corrosive SAFETY PROFILE Poison by subcutaneous route. Corrosive to skin and eyes. See also FLUORIDES and ANTIMONY COMPOUNDS. When heated to decomposition it emits very toxic fumes of F and Sb. 

Most authors report higher tissue concentrations of antimony in the liver, kidney, and thyroid shortly after administration of antimony potassium tartrate to animals (Brady 1945, Westrick 1953). Unlike arsenic, inorganic trivalent antimony is not methylated in vivo but is excreted in the bile and urine after conjugation with glutathione... 

FIG. 1. Antimony intoxication blood levels and forced excretion in urine. 

Biomonitoring studies in the U.S. indicate that antimony levels in urine have been decreasing in the general population. 

Paschal DC, Ting BG, Morrow JC et al (1998) Trace metals in urine of United States residents reference range concentrations. Environ Res 76(l) 53-59 Poon R, Chu I (2000) Effects of trivalent antimony on human erythrocyte glutathione-S-transferases. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 14(3) 169-176 Poon R, Chu I, Lecavalier P et al (1998) Effects of antimony on rats following 90-day exposure via drinking water. Food Chem Toxicol 36(l) 21-35 Rahman L, Corns WT, Bryce DW et al (2000) Determination of mercury, selenium, bismuth, arsenic and antimony in human hair by microwave digestion atomic fluorescence spectrometry. Talanta 52(5) 833-843... 

Schroeder HA, Mitchener M, Nason AP (1970) Zirconium, niobium, antimony, vanadium and lead in rats life term studies. J Nutr 100(l) 59-68 Schulz C, Angerer J, Ewers U et al (2009) Revised and new reference values for environmental pollutants in urine or blood of children in Germany derived from the German environmental survey on children 2003-2006 (GerES IV). Int J Hyg Environ Health 212(6) 637-647 Shirai S, Suzuki Y, Yoshinaga J et al (2010) Maternal exposure to low-level heavy metals during pregnancy and birth size. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 45(11) 1468-1474... 

Wu XD, Song JM, Ei XG et al (2011b) Behaviors of dissolved antimony in the Yangtze River Estuary and its adjacent waters. J Environ Monit 13(8) 2292-2303 Yorita Christensen KE (2012) Metals in blood and urine, and thyroid function among adults in the United States 2007-2008. Int J Hyg Environ Health... 

Schramel, R, Wendler, I., and Angerer,J. (1997).The determination of metals (antimony, bismuth, lead, cadmium, mercury, palladium, platinum, tellurium, thallium, tin and tungsten) in urine samples by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Flealth 69(3), 219. 

Common elements speciated using liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with ICP-MS include arsenic, selenium, mercury, antimony in mostly urine samples. Arsenic speciation is usually achieved using an anion-exchange column. Selenium compounds may be separated under conditions similar to those for arsenic, or by a reverse phase column with ion pairing... 

Antimony, Lead, Cadmium, Platinum, Mercury, Tellurium, Thallium, Bismuth, Tungsten, Tin. Determination in Urine (Inductively coupled plasma quadrupole mass spectrometry). Biomonitoring Methods, Analyses of Hazardous Substances in Biological Materials, Wiley-VCH 1999 (http //onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10. l(X)2/3527600418/topics). 

Sodium stibogluconate is a pentavalent antimo-nial compound. It is a prodrug as the pentavalent an-timonial has to be reduced to a divalent antimony compound. Sodium stibogluconate is used to deal leishmaniasis and is only available for adminisda-tion by injection. It is excreted in the urine. In general it is tolerated fairly well. Adverse effects include pain at the injection site and gasdointestinal complaints. Cardiac arrhythmias can occur and renal and hepatic function should be monitored. 

Antimonials are irritating to the intestinal mucosa and therefore are administered by intramuscular or slow intravenous injection. Peak blood concentrations occur in 2 hours. These drugs bind to cells, including erythrocytes, and are found in high concentrations in the liver and spleen. As compared with the trivalent antimonials, which are no longer used, the pentavalent antimonials bind to tissue less strongly. This results in higher blood levels, more rapid excretion, and lowered toxicity. Pentavalent antimonials are rapidly excreted in the urine, with up to one-half of the administered dose excreted in 24 hours. 

Lindemann, T., A. Prange, W. Dannecker, and B. Neidhart. 2000. Stability studies of arsenic, selenium, antimony and tellurium species in water, urine, fish and soil extracts using HPLC/ICP-MS. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 368 214-220. 

In 1935, the American Federal Bureau of Investigation pointed out that the test was not specific and had reservations about its use.118 Other evaluations of the technique proved it to be completely unreliable as an indicator of FDR. Common substances such as tobacco, tobacco ash, fertilizers, certain pharmaceuticals, certain paints, and urine also give positive results.119120 In addition a number of oxidizing agents such as chlorates, bromates, iodates, permanganates, chromates, vanadates, molybdates, antimony(V), and ferric salts also give a reaction.121,122 At the Interpol Conference in Paris in 1968 it was officially concluded that the paraffin test should no longer be used.123... 

By December Barlow s condition had begun to decline. His temperature exceeded 103 degrees Fahrenheit, blood and mucus appeared regularly in his urine and stools. He could only sleep with the aid of sedatives. Being the consummate scientist, Barlow frequently examined his own specimens and kept an almost daily record of his clinical and laboratory observations. For example, in tests of his urine he found he was passing up to 12,000 eggs in each 24-hour sample. Barlow was a very sick man, so sick that he was subjected to extremely painful injections of antimony. Treatment with the heavy metal did clear Barlow of the infection by December 1944. In 1948 Barlow received the Medal of Merit from President Truman. He died at the ripe old age of 93. 

There are many examples of relatively straightforward use of ICP-MS for the analysis of biological fluids. Antimony has been measured in blood after a 14 1 dilution [236]. Cesium serum levels were found to be elevated in patients with alcohol dementia but not in Alzheimer s disease patients [237]. Cobalt levels in rat serum depended on the form of cobalt [238] ingested. Bismuth levels were measured in human blood and urine by using a direct injection nebulizer [239]. Lead was measured in the blood and blood plasma of smelter workers and the general population [240]. The measurement of trace elements in serum by ICP-MS has been compared to results from neutron activation analysis and proton-induced x-ray emission [241]. Semiquantitative analysis can also be used to obtain a rapid screening of samples [242]. 

The polarographic determination of tin has been carried out in various foods the content of bismuth, antimony and arsenic has been measured mainly in blood, urine and tissues (see [3]). 

Most antimony compounds, mainly those with poor water solubility, are absorbed only slowly from the gastrointestinal tracts. Trivalent compounds especially tend to accumulate in the human body, because they are excreted very slowly via urine and feces. Antimony and its compounds react with —SH groups in various cellular constituents, especially in enzymes, blocking their activity. After acute and chronic exposure the highest concentrations are found in liver, kidney, adrenals and thyroid. 

Antimony is excreted in the urine. Peak concentrations are seen at about 1-2 hours after an intramuscular injection of meglumine antimonate. Serum concentrations faU to about 10% of peak concentrations after about 8 hours. There is some accumulation of antimony during continued treatment. On a weight for weight basis children require a higher dose and tolerate antimony better. Toxicity is more likely in patients with impaired renal function, as would be expected for a drug that is mainly excreted in the urine. 

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