Universe, of data

The normal distribution of measurements (or the normal law of error) is the fundamental starting point for analysis of data. When a large number of measurements are made, the individual measurements are not all identical and equal to the accepted value /x, which is the mean of an infinite population or universe of data, but are scattered about /x, owing to random error. If the magnitude of any single measurement is the abscissa and the relative frequencies (i.e., the probability) of occurrence of different-sized measurements are the ordinate, the smooth curve drawn through the points (Fig. 2.10) is the normal or Gaussian distribution curve (also the error curve or probability curve). The term error curve arises when one considers the distribution of errors (x — /x) about the true value. 

Verification is the complement of calibration model predictions are compared to field observations that were not used in calibration or fidelity testing. This is usually the second half of split-sample testing procedures, where the universe of data is divided (either in space or time), with a portion of the data used for calibration/fidelity check and the remainder used for verification. In essence, verification is an independent test of how well the model (with its calibrated parameters) is representing the important processes occurring in the natural system. Although field and environmental conditions are often different during the verification step, parameters determined during calibration are not adjusted for verification. 

In statistics a finite number of observations of a given kind is considered to represent a sample of an infinite population or universe of data. The properties of the universe... 

Universe of data Synonymous with a population of data. 

In the statistical treatment of data, it is assumed that the handful of replicate experimental results obtained in the laboratory is a minute fraction of the infinite number of results that could, in principle, be obtained gi en infinite time and an infinite amount of sample. Statisticians call the handful of data a sample and view it as a subset of an infinite population, or universe, of data that exists in principle. The laws of statistics apply strictly to populations only when applying t hese laws to a sample of laboratory data, we must assume that the sample is truly representative of the population. Because there is no assurance that this assumption is valid, statements about random errors are necessarily uncertain and must be couched in terms of probabilities. 

This paper compares experimental data for aluminium and steel specimens with two methods of solving the forward problem in the thin-skin regime. The first approach is a 3D Finite Element / Boundary Integral Element method (TRIFOU) developed by EDF/RD Division (France). The second approach is specialised for the treatment of surface cracks in the thin-skin regime developed by the University of Surrey (England). In the thin-skin regime, the electromagnetic skin-depth is small compared with the depth of the crack. Such conditions are common in tests on steels and sometimes on aluminium. 

The SWISS-PROT database [36] release 40.44 (February, 2003) contains over 120 000 sequences of proteins with more than 44 million amino adds abstracted from about 100 000 references. Besides sequence data, bibHographical references, and taxonomy data, there are highly valuable annotations of information (e.g., protein function), a minimal level of redundancy, and a high level of integration with other databases (EMBL, PDB, PIR, etc.). The database was initiated in 1987 by a partnership between the Department of Medicinal Biochemistry of the University of Geneva, Switzerland, and the EMBL. Now SWISS-PROT is driven as a joint project of the EMBL and the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB). 

The electronic data analysis service (ELECTRAS), which was developed at the Com-puter-Chemie-Centrum of the University of Erlangen-Ntlmberg through a project supported by the DFN-Verein and the BMBF, is a web-based application which presents an interface to various kinds of data analysis methods. It offers the methods... 

Fisher s least significant difference a modified form of the f-test for comparing several sets of data. (p. 696) flame ionization detector a nearly universal GC detector in which the solutes are combusted in an H2/air flame, producing a measurable current, (p. 570)... 

D. Layton and co-workers. Conventional Weapons Demilitarisation, A Health and Environmental Effects Data Base Assessment Explosives and Their Co-Contaminants, UERL-21109, Livermore National Lab., University of California, Livermore, Dec 1987. 

T. R. Gibbs and A. Popolato, eds., EASE Explosive Property Data, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1980. 

J. H. Ashworth, Y. M. Bihun, and M. La2ams, Universe of U.S. Commercial-Scale Anaerobic Digesters Results of SERJ/ARD Data Collection, Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., May 30,1985 J. H. Ashworth, Problems With Installed Commercial Anaerobic Digesters in the United States Results of Site Visits, Rev. ed.. Solar Energy Research Institute, Golden, Colo., Nov. 6, 1985. 

The Novosibirsk Institute of Organic Chemistry has developed a method for computer-aided retrieval of stmctural information from H-nmr using its database of 50,000 spectra (72). Eraser WUHams Ltd. (Scientific Systems) has special software to search its E-nmr database (73). Protein nmr data have been compiled into a relational database at the University of Wisconsin (74). 

A computer file of about 19,000 peak wavenumbers and intensities, along with search software, is distributed by the Infrared Data Committee of Japan (IRDC). Donated spectra, which are evaluated by the Coblentz Society in coUaboration with the Joint Committee on Atomic and Molecular Physical Data (JCAMP), are digitized and made avaUable (64). Almost 25,000 ir spectra are avaUable on the SDBS system developed by the NCLl as described. A project was initiated at the University of California, Riverside, in 1986 for the constmction of a database of digitized ftir spectra. The team involved also developed algorithms for spectra evaluation (75). Other sources of spectral Hbraries include Sprouse Scientific, Aston Scientific, and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). 

Miscellaneous. NIST has a reference database of criticaUy evaluated x-ray photoelectron and Auger spectral data, which is designed to mn on PCs. It is searchable by spectral lines as weU as by element, line energy, and chemical data (82). The Nuclear Quadrapole Resonance Spectra Database at Osaka University of over 10,000 records is avaUable in an MS-DOS version (83). The NCLl system, SDBS, has esr and Raman spectra, along with nmr, ir, and ms data, as described. 

Technical data, T. Veum, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo., 1981. 

The data available are generally for the Athabasca materials, although workers at the University of Utah (Salt Lake City) have carried out an intensive program to determine the processibiUty of Utah bitumen and considerable data have become available. Bulk properties of samples from several locations (Table 3) (9) show that there is a wide range of properties. Substantial differences exist between the tar sands in Canada and those in the United States a difference often cited is that the former is water-wet and the latter, oil-wet (10). 

The University of Idaho and USFWS, with funds from the Bonneville Power Administration, are also gathering data for registration of erythromycin. Erythromycin is intended for control of bacterial kidney disease in salmonid fingerlings that can also be transmitted by broodstock to the eggs (9). If research is completed on schedule and data indicate that the compound is safe and effective, registration is scheduled for 1994 (see Antibiotics, MACROLIDES). 

K. J. A. Brookes, World Director and Handbook ofHardmetals and Hard Materials, 5th ed.. International Carbide Data, East Barnet, Hertfordshire, UK, 1992. T. E. Chung, D. S. Coleman, A. G. Dowson, and B. WiUiams, eds.. Proceedings of the Pecent Advances in Hardmetal Production, Loughborough University of Technology, pubHshed by Metal Powder Report, Sept. 17—19, 1979. 

Values interpolated and converted from tables of Kang, McKetta, et al.. Bur. Eng. Res. Repr. 59, University of Texas, Austin, 1961. See also J. Chem. Eng. Data, 6 (1961) 220-227 and Am. Inst. Chem. Eng. ]., 7 (1961) 418. c = critical point. The notation 6.189.—4 signifies 6.189 X 10 . The AIChE publication contains a Mohier diagram to 4500 psia, 480 F, while the reprint contains saturation and superheat tables. 

For banks of in-line tubes,/for isothermal flow is obtained from Fig. 6-43. Average deviation from available data is on the order of 15 percent. For tube spacings greater than 3D(, the charts of Gram, Mackey, and Monroe (Trans. ASME, 80, 25—35 [1958]) can be used. As an approximation, the pressure drop can be taken as 0.32 velocity head (based on V ) per row of tubes (Lapple, et al.. Fluid and Paiiicle Mechanics, University of Delaware, Newark, 1954). 

Work at the University of Manchester Institue of Science and Technology (UMIST) has resulted in several papers reporting efficiency data taken in a 0.6-m-diameter column. The systems methanol/water, isopropanoil/water, and toluene methylcyclohexane have been used. The results may be found in Lockett and Ahmed [Chem. Eng. Re.s. Des., 61, 110 (1983)], Korchinsky et al. [Trans. Chem. E., 72, 406 (1994)], and Korchinsky [ibid., 472]... 

FIG. 14-74 HETP values for Max-Pak structured packing,. 35 kPa (5 psia), two column diameters. Cyclohexane/n-heptane system, total reflux. For 0.4.3 m (1.4 ft) column perforated pipe distributor, 400 streams/m2, 3.05 m (10 ft) bed height. For 1.2 m (4.0 ft) column tubed drip pan distributor, 100 streams/m ,. 3.7 m (12 ft) bed height. Smaller column data. University of Texas/Austin Larger column data. Fractionation Research, Inc. To convert (ft/s)(lb/ft ) to (m/s)(kg/m ) , multiply by 1.2199. (Couiiesy Jaeger Troducts, Inc., Housion, Texas.)... 

A comparison of experimental data for carbon dioxide absorption obtained oy Hatta anci Katori (op. cit.), Grimley [Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng., 23, 228 (1945)], and Vyazov [Zh. Tekh. Fiz. (U.S.S.R.), 10, 1519 (1940)] and for absorption or oxygen and hydrogen by Hodgson (S. M. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1949), Henley (B.S. thesis. University of Delaware, 1949), Miller (B.S. thesis. University of Delaware, 1949), and Richards (B.S. thesis. University of Delaware, 1950) was made by Shei wood and Pigford (Absorption and Extraction, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952) and is indicated in Fig. 14-78. 

Most efficiently realization of softwai e of that type may be realized in case if solution of different problems is realized on the base of some universal set of data on the atomic constants and tools for operation with them and other data necessary for setting samples composition, terms of determination, etc. 

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