Universal Standards

The conversion level sometimes is taken at 95 percent of equihbrium, but there is no universal standard. 

Metals and alloys do not respond alike to aU the influences of the many factors that are involved in corrosion. Consequently, it is impractical to establish any universal standard laboratoiy procedures for corrosion testing except for inspection tests. However, some details of laboratory testing need careful attention in order to achieve useful results. 

Values given relative to the universal standard PDB (Belemnitella amencana from the Cretaceous Pedee foraiation, South California, USA). 

The micron ratings of a cartridge are intended to indicate the smallest particle that will be retained by the pores of the filter element. Often a rough-cut pre-filter is installed ahead of a final or polishing filter in order to increase the life of the final unit. Unfortunately, the method for determining the micron rating is not a universal standard between manufacturers. Thus, one manufacturer s 50 micron filter may not perform the same as another manufacturer s with the same rating number. The only reliable approach is to send the manufacturer an actual sample of the fluid and let him test it to select the filter to do your job, or actually test the unit in your plant s field application [37]. 

It is also interesting to consider the heat transfer coefficient of the tube wall relative to the film and fouling coefficients. Table 15.4 tabulates the coefficients for a variety of materials for some standard tube sizes. It should be noted that the sizes in Table 15.4 are not universally standard. 

Standards Universal production standards, assured through accreditation and inspection No universal standards. Voluntary codes of conduct and self-regula-tion becoming more common... 

It follows that there cannot be a universal standard abrasion test method for plastics and the test method and test conditions have to be chosen to suit the end application. Also, great care has to be taken if the test is intended to provide a significant degree of acceleration. 

The cubic centimetre is the volume occupied by a cube of which each side is 1 cm in length, and thus, 1 litre equals 1000.028 c.c. Therefore, it follows from here that the millilitre and cubic centimetre are not the same, though the difference is quite negligible. Hence, all volumetric apparatus is universally standardized in millilitres. 

Quality control, however, needs more attention. For example, it has been reported that much of the chemical data produced by the International Indian Ocean Expedition is unusable because of doubts about its accuracy. Such reports are a perennial source of confusion in marine chemistry. Better calibration, universal standards, and interlaboratory comparison are essential if we are to continue our present field methods, in which independent investigators make measurements that are presumably comparable (NRC, 1971, pp. 54-55). 

The following protocols are based on distinct properties of proteins therefore, exact information is only possible if a heterogeneous protein mixture is compared with a universal standard protein. The best way would be to take a defined sample of the protein to be analyzed. So the difficulties start with the selection of the standards, because it is well known how difficult it is to prepare a protein that fulfills the criteria of analytical chemistry. 

Satisfactory results for a method can only be obtained with well-performing equipment. Therefore, before an instrument is used to validate a method, its performance should be verified using universal standards (47). Special attention should be paid to the equipment specifications that are critical for the performance of the method. For example, if detection limit is critical for a specific method, the detector specifications for baseline noise and the response to the specified compounds should be checked. Furthermore, any reagent or reference standard used to determine critical validation parameters should be double-checked for accurate composition and purity. 

Variations in the ratio 13C/12C can be determined relative to an adopted universal standard. This reference standard is calcium carbonate from Pee Dee (USA), which has an elevated abundance in 13C (where 13C/12C = 1.12372 x 10-2). In practice, the determination is made by measuring the peak intensities of l3C02 (45) and 12C02 (44) obtained by combustion of the sample. The relative deviation, in thousandths, 6, of the compound can thus be obtained. The value of 6 is usually negative. 

However, it is clear that slight variations in vessel shape, etched markings, or external pressure can lead to disagreements as to which thermometer gives the true temperature. Moreover, the reference points chosen to standardize the readings between different thermometers could be subject to disagreements (see Sidebar 2.4), as could the choice of thermometric fluid (e.g., Hg vs. water, each of which has different values of aP in different temperature ranges). Under these circumstances, the choice of the true temperature scale may become subject to non-scientific influences. We therefore seek a universal standard that avoids such arbitrary choices. 

Before reaching the point of complete data integration as given above, there are intermediary levels of data integration that are beneficial to better analysis of data from process analyzers. The best case would be to have all the data in a human readable form that is independent of the application data format. Over the years several attempts have been made to have a universal format for spectroscopic data, including JCAMP-DX and extensible markup language (XML). Because many instrument vendors use proprietary databases, and there is not a universal standard, the problem of multiple data formats persists. This has led to an entire business of data integration by third parties who aid in the transfer of data from one source to another, such as between instruments and the plant s distributed control system (DCS). 

In spite of the on-going development of LCA as an environmental tool, there is still very little available information on LCA for analytical protocols. There are drawbacks to the existing LCA programs, which mean that the information they furnish is incomplete. Nonetheless, a number of research projects are currently focused on LCA, which is sure to become an essential tool in environmental protection. Even though LCA is an excellent environmental tool in concept, in practice, it is still hard to tell whether it can be applied quantitatively. This is because there are no universal standards of comparison in any case, the precise environmental costs, not to mention the practical ones, are hard to estimate. 

Products manufactured by different companies, even with the same source materials, can present very different specific activities. Consequently, the concept of a universal standard of potency has been developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and this has proved extremely valuable to reduce the variability of results between laboratories, as well as to improve the comparability of clinical studies and research (Mire-Sluis et al., 1996). 

The official cotton standards of the United States for the grade of Upland cotton are also called the universal standards. Leading cotton associations in major cotton-consuming countries meet periodically to establish a continuing consensus of cotton classification. International conferences are held every 3 years in the United States to consider revisions and to ensure accurate reproduction of the standards. By this method, the U.S. cotton classification system maintains sensitivity and responsiveness to cotton consumer needs. 

As providers of aid relief to communities across the world nurses must be aware of the need for accountability and quality of care. This is not easy as there is no universally accepted international minimum standard. In the absence of a single universal standard, some international government organizations (IGOs) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have developed their own standards. The Sphere project has attempted to develop the universal international minimum standards, and it... 

No universal standard appears to exist for the selection of specimen height in relation to its thickness. Adkins (2) attributes about a 1% decrease in shear stiffness to en3 effects at a height-to-thickness ratio of 24. Parin, et al (10) recommends a height-to-thickness ratio greater than 4. The values of this ratio were 20 and 500 in the present tests on the Soundcoat and the 3M materials, respectively. 

Extraction techniques are universal, standardized, and commonly applied sample preparation methods (see for example [1 ]). Development of extraction methodology in the past 20 years has been eventful and impressive. Universalism of these techniques is associated with applicability to analyses of a great diversity of organic compounds (including DNA and RNA) and elements and their speciation forms, which are present in different sample matrices both in trace and macro quantities. 

The only solution to this current morass is for all parties to agree (as they have in allied fields such as the automobile, paint, dye, colors and textile industries) upon a universal standard, such as the GIE D and select the best lamp available for its simulation, the Xenon arc. As with any standard, there must be restrictions, on this one, too. Restrictions are what define a standard, its purity, and strength. 

It is already a universal standard It is a specialty lamp It has the least number of components It is available in a large number of wattages from 100 to 6500W It gives the most information per study Fastest results Least labor intensive Gives the most data per test Initial investment high Generates heat Most expensive lamps... 

In the United States, PCBs are regulated under the TSCA. The universal standard for total PCBs (i.e., the total of all 209 congeners) in commercial... 

McDonald CJ, Huff SM, Suico JG, Hill G, Leavehe D, et ai. LOINC, a Universal Standard for Identifying Laboratory Observations A 5-Year Update. Clin Chem 2003 49 624-33. 

IS015189 Medical Laboratories—-Particular Requirements for Quality and Competence is a universal standard for quahty management in medical laboratories that specifies requirements in general terms applicable to all medical laboratory fields, The standard is intended to form the basis for accreditation of medical laboratories. In addition to general laboratory conditions in relation to quality control, the standard focuses on medical competence, interpretation of test results, selection of tests, reference intervals, ethical aspects, and safety. An annex concerns quality management of laboratory computer systems. 

Determine the standards (thresholds) for each criterion. These can reflect universal standards established for the institution s clinical program or expectations of an individual clinical pharmacist. The standards establish departmental expectations regarding the extent to which the individual performs each criterion. The expectations should be objective and expressed clearly. Some sites may decide not to use standards however, they should be cautioned that objective evaluation may be difficult without standards. 

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