Traditional systems of medicin

The traditional system of medicine of the Pacific Rim uses approx 80 species of Apiaceae, for instance, Centella asiatica (L.) Urban (Hydrocotyle asiatica L. centella, Indian Pharmaceutical Codex, 1955). The plant has been used in India since early times for skin diseases and as a diuretic. It has long been a popular remedy in India for leprosy and syphilis. However, large doses are said to have narcotic action. The plant was used also by the surgeons of Napoleon s army. 

Mother Nature still continues to be a resource of novel chemotypes and pharmacophores, and an impressive number of modem drugs have been isolated from natural sources, many based on their uses in traditional medicine systems. " To a large extent, the use of natural products in drug design represents the natural evolution of this old tradition. It has been extensively documented that the traditional medicine systems of many cultures worldwide are based on plants,for example in countries like China and India where plants have formed the basis for traditional systems of medicines. According to Kim and Park, natural... 

HYPERICUM (ST. JOHN S WORT) IN FOLK MEDICINE AND TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS OF MEDICINE... 

In folk medicine and traditional systems of medicine, various species of valerian have been used as an oral infusion to treat migraine headaches, hysteria, nervous unrest, neurasthenia, fatigue, seizures, stomach cramps that cause vomiting, and other nervous conditions. Valerian also has been used internally as a spasmolytic, a carminative, and a stomachic, and externally on cuts, sores, and acne. Some herbalists recommend it as a possible vermifuge. In Chinese medicine, valerian is used to treat the aforementioned conditions, as well as chronic headache, numbness due to rheumatic conditions, colds, menstrual difficulties, and bruises. Because there has been no extensive research conducted on uses other that the sedative properties of valerian and its constituents, these other uses cannot be scientifically evaluated. 

Plants have always played a central role in traditional systems of medicine for the prevention and treatment of disease worldwide [10, 11]. Although an in-depth history of plant medicines, for both human and veterinary purposes is beyond the scope of this review, it is important to understand that for thousands of years the traditional medicine in all countries exclusively employed naturally occurring plant medicines. For example, Hippocrates (5th century B.C.) mentions approximately 300 to 400 medicinal plants in his medical writings Dioscorides (1st century A.D.) wrote De Materia Medica, a medicinal plant treatise that outlined the medical use of numerous plant species and many hundreds of plant remedies are described in the Papyrus of Ebers, discovered in Egypt, which was written about 1550 BC [5, 11]. Furthermore, traditional Chinese medicine uses multiple plant prescriptions and has served the health needs of the Chinese population for over 5000 years [12, 13]. The Bible also described over 30 plant species, including frankincense and myrrh, which are reported to have antiseptic and healing properties [5]. 

Du Toit, B. M. Historical factors influencing cannabis use among Indians in South Africa. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 1977, 9, 235-246. Dwarakanath, S. C. Use of opium and cannabis indie traditional systems of medicine in India. Bulletin on Narcotics, 1965, 17, 15-19. 

The use of "herbal preparations" in the treatment of some human parasitic infections has been described in traditional systems of medicine like Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine and Unani, practiced since immemorial times. The drugs used in traditional systems thus provide useful leads for development of modem drugs. Consequently a variety of medicinal plants have been subjected to detailed chemical and biological investigations culminating in the discovery of novel anthelmintic natural products of medicinal and veterinary importance [1]. 

The use of natural products in the treatment and control of human parasitic diseases is referred in the texts of traditional systems of medicine. Ancient medical practioners of traditional remedies in China, India, Egypt, the Middle East and Europe knew several plants having activity against various diseases caused verv likely by protozoans, though the etiology and epidemiology of such diseases were not well defined in those days. Many of these remedies are still used, particularly in countries where traditional systems of medicine are a part of the health care systems. In India it is believed that 50-75% of the population uses traditional drugs Irecause of their lower cost, easy access and faith in them [1]. 

Qinghao (Artemisia annua L.) is an important medicinal herb, which has h>een used in the Chinese traditional system of medicine for many centuries. In 1972, Chinese scientists isolated (+)-artemisinin (7, qinghaosu) from the above plant, which is indigenous to China [27-30]. Artemisinin is a sesquiterpene lactone peroxide, whose structure and synthesis have been worked out [27,28]. It has marked activity against both chloroquine-sensitive and resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum and is particularly suitable for treating cerebral malaria as it is very fast acting [29-31]. 

Ochna squarrosa L. (root bark) Lophirone A (351) lophirone L (217) lophirone H (322) calodenone (350). Used in Indian traditional systems of medicine. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities. Anuradha et al., 2006(306]. 

Medicinal plants are significant source of synthetic and herbal drugs. Medicinal plants have been used for the treatment of diseases since antiquity. India and China have been on the forefront when we talk about history of herbal drugs. The traditional systems of medicines viz. Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, Western Herbal Medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine and Homeopathy have roots in medicinal herbs. Herbal medicine has produced number of distinguished researchers and due to its accessibility to traditions it is still practiced even by lay practitioners. 

Soon after the elaboration by the World Health Organisation (WHO) of the Alma Ata Declaration of Health for all by the Tear 2000 , it realised that approximately 80% of the world s population had no access to Western-style healthcare. Any attempt therefore to provide comprehensive healthcare depended on the utilisation of traditional systems of medicine which are almost exclusively plant based. Each continent and area has its own distinct herbal lore and practice but some have become more widely known through migration and through public interest. Many of the plants used in traditional pharmacopoeias are the subject of intense scientific investigation by the pharmaceutical industry looking for new bioactive molecules or for leads to new therapeutic approaches. 

The value placed by the public on access to natural medicines and alternative therapies continues to expand enormously. Plants provide the backbone of this phenomenon and also that of traditional systems of medicine which are essential for so many human beings. The scientific exploration of the many facets of medicinal plants, their growth, analysis, effectiveness and safety is a major endeavour involving different scientific disciplines and experimental techniques and methodologies. New medicines based on plants will be discovered, while the value and risks of old medicines will emerge from this work. 

Of a total of 43 Sri Lankan plants from which alkaloids have been isolated, 17 are claimed to have applications in traditional systems of medicine (Table III). As stated in the Introduction, many of these investigations were not driven by the claims of medicinal properties. Interestingly, several bioactive alkaloids have been isolated from plants with no claims of any medicinal applications. 

A vast majority of the world s population stiff has faith in and dependence on traditional systems of medicine for most of their health problems. It is roughly estimated that 70 to 75% of the population living primarily in the developing world are dependent for then-health needs on plants or preparations derived from plants. The principle of discovering... 

The practice of traditional medicine is widespread in Asian societies such as India, China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Bangladesh. Some 70 to 85 % of the population is dependent on traditional medicine in these countries. In Japan, preparations made from herbal dmgs (i.e., the kampo system of medicine) are more in demand than mainstream pharmaceutical products. Similarly, the traditional system of medicine is very popular on the African continent, which is very rich in medicinal herbs. Even in European countries, 1500 plant species of aromatic and medicinal plants are presently being used in countries such as Albania, Croatia, France, Germany, Poland, Spain, and United Kingdom. 

In view of the outstanding importance attributed to Melia azadirachta (neem) in folklore and traditional systems of medicine for the... 

EOs are generally products of rather complex compositions used contemporaneously in aroma therapy and for centuries as aromatic medicinal plant species in traditional systems of medicine. Aromatic formulas are used for the treatment of a variety of illnesses, including those that affect the CNS (Almeida et al. 2004). Volatile compounds presenting sedative or stimulatory properties have been and continue to be identi ed in EOs from aromatic medicinal species spread into dif ferent families and genera. The majority of these substances have small structures with less than 12 carbons and present low-polarity chemical functions, being therefore quite volatile. Since most natural EOs are formed by complex mixtures, their bioactivity(ies) is obviously dependent on the contribution of their various components. Therefore, studies failing to characterize at least the main components of the EO studied are not discussed in this chapter. 

Herbal research is either based on random screening followed by bioassay-directed fractionation or a reliance on ethnomedicine. The last approach has provided leads for research (including immunomodulatory activities [81]) and many effective plant-based prescriptions have been developed from traditional systems of medicine from countries like China, Japan, Korea and Germany. 

Ayurveda, the Indian traditional system of medicine also offers a vast source for research. However, one finds, especially in the area of immunostimulant agents, a number of lacunae. There are anecdotal reports on different plants and only few have been followed up and developed into clinical formulations. This is because research on Ayurvedic medicines is fraught with a number of difficulties which need to be addressed [82]. 

Rauf A, Afaq AH, Latif A (2006) Pharmacognostical standardization of Ushna a cardiotonic drug mentioned in Adviya qalbiya. In Abdin MZ, Abrol YP (eds) Traditional systems of medicine. Narosa, New Delhi, pp 229-235... 

Based on the traditional system of medicine, plant based products can be attractive candidates for use as safe vaccine adjuvants. 

Uncaria spp. has been widely used in the form of decoctimis made from single species or from herbal formulations in traditional systems of medicine to treat several disorders as discussed in previous sections. Among all, the species of Uncaria, U. tomentosa is the widely studied species which is followed by U. rhynchophylla. The pharmacological activities of cmde extracts and isolated compounds are discussed in the following subsections. 

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