Use in folk medicine

Antibiotics were used in folk medicine at least as early as 2500 years ago when the Chinese reported the medicinally beneficial effects of moldy bean curd. Evidence for some type of tetracycline antibiotic usage by the Sudanese-Nubian civilization (350 AD) was reported in 1980 (6). Fluorescent areas in human bones from this eta were observed that were identical in location and characteristics to modern bone from patients treated with tetracyclines. Identification of tetracycline in the ancient bones was further substantiated by fluorescence spectmm measurements and microbiological inhibition studies (7). 

Salvia is one of the most important genera of the Family Lamiaceae. Several species of salvia ai e used in folk medicine as antiseptics, astringents and spasmolytics [3]. 

Therapeutic properties of herbs have been known for many years. They were once used in folk medicine, but recently herb therapy has become popular again. It is known that widely nsed herbal infnsions or tinctures contain a wide spectrum of compounds ranguig from very important pharmacologically active ones to those with small or sometimes undesirable activity. 

In 1991, McChesney and El-Eeraly reported the isolation of methyl 6-methoxy-carbazole-3-carboxylate (104) from the roots of C. lansium (23). In Taiwan the roots of this ornamental tree are used in folk medicine for the treatment of bronchitis and malaria (23). The UV spectrum [Tmax 227, 241 (sh), 266 (sh), and 285 nm] and the IR... 

Lasserre, B., R. Kaiser, P. Huu Chanh, N. Ifansyah, J. Gleye, and C. Moulis. Effects on rats of aqueous extracts of plants used in folk medicine as antihypertensive agents. Naturwissen-schaften 1983 70(2) 95-96. Funayama, S., and H. Hikino. Hypotensive principles from plants. Het-erocycles 1981 15 1239-1256. 

Cardiac steroids, or cardenoUdes, are steroid glycosides. Their effect has been known since the time of the ancient Egyptians. In more recent times, the foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and its effect were described in 1785 by William Withering, who knew of its use in folk medicine. 

For many decades the pain relieving properties of willow bark extracts have been used in folk medicine (Fig. 1). Glycoside cleavage and oxidation is necessary for the biosynthesis of salicylic acid from the plant precursor p-D-glucopyranoside, the so-called saligenins. 

The group of organic bases known as alkaloids (B-81MI10603) includes the active principles of some of the oldest remedies used in folk medicine, and many of them still have important uses. The manufacture of such compounds by total synthesis is usually unattractive, but some, for example morphine, undergo chemical manipulation to give drugs with improved properties, and some have served as models for simpler synthetic compounds. 

Plants are significant to the diet of humans and animals since they provide most of the essential nutrients and vitamins. Vitamins C (ascorbic acid), E (a-tocopherol) and K (phylloquinone) are biosynthesized by plants, while (3-carotene, the precursor of vitamin A and ergosterol, the precursor of vitamin D, are also secondary plant metabolites. These metabolites are used in folk medicine and for industrial purposes, as raw materials for pharmaceutical and other products [3]. On the other hand, plants may produce substances, which are toxic and/or irritant to man. 

Extract from artichoke, Cynara scolymus L., has been used in folk medicine against liver complaints and such extracts or several constituents thereof have been claimed to exert a hepatoprotective effect... 

Islands. All these plants are used in folk medicine. These two systems, the 2,3,4-and the 2,4,5-orientations, potentially give rise, with ammonia, to MMDA-3a and MMDA-2. 

Carbocyclic variants related to ajmalicine such as yohimbine are likely to arise from dehy-drogeissoschizine by the mechanism indicated in Figure 6.77. Yohimbine is found in Yohimbe bark (Pausinystalia yohimbe, Rubiaceae) and Aspidosperma bark (Aspidosperma species Apocy-naceae) and has been used in folk medicine as an aphrodisiac. It does have some pharmacological activity and is known to dilate blood vessels. More important examples containing the same carbocyclic ring system are the alkaloids found in species of Rauwolfla, especially R. serpentina (Apocynaceae). Reserpine and deserpi-dine (Figure 6.78) are trimethoxybenzoyl esters of yohimbine-like alkaloids, whilst rescinnamine is... 

Various species of Ephedra grow in different parts of the world. It is believed that the Chinese species contain the official levorotatory ephedrine, whereas the same species and other varieties from Europe yield only dextrorotatory pseudoephedrine. East Indian species range from rich to none. Ephedrine exists in the seed of another, totally unrelated Indian plant, Sida cordifolia, which was also used in folk medicine. Ma huang also contains another alkaloid, ephedine, which lowers blood pressure and has other complex actions. 

Crocus sativus L., commonly known as saffron, is used in folk medicine as an antispasmodic, eupeptic, gingival sedative, anticatarrhal, nerve sedative, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic, aphrodisiac, and emmenagogue. Furthermore, modem pharmacological studies have demonstrated that saffron extract or its active constituents have antitumor effects, radical scavenger properties, and hypolipemic effects (see Rios et al., 1996). 

Flavonoids are a group of about 4000 naturally occurring compounds with a wide range of biological effects, including antiulcer activity. They are important constituents of the human diet (a daily diet contains approximately 1 g of flavonoids per day) and are also found in several medicinal plants used in folk medicine around the world. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the gastroprotective effect of flavonoids ... 

Another plant that is commonly used in folk medicine as a stimulant is Anchusa officinalis L. Broch-Due and Aasen have identified lycopsamine (53) as the main alkaloidal constituent of this species (c/. Vol. 7, p. 57).22... 

Natural products have been identified as the active principle of herbs and extracts used in folk medicine [1], The importance of natural products in the pharmaceutical industry has continued to the present day and is reflected by the fact that close to half of the best selling pharmaceuticals are either natural products (e.g. cyclosporine, Taxol, FK 506) or derivatives thereof [3]. In high throughput screening processes performed by the pharmaceutical industry natural product extracts exhibit a hit rate which is estimated to be substantially higher than the hit rate of random libraries from combinatorial chemistry. Natural products such as epothilones, discodermolide or ecteinascidin are promising clinical candidates for future cancer treatment. 

Ajowan seed has been popular from ancient times for its use in folk medicines. The seeds contain an essential oil with 50% thymol, which is a strong germicide, antispasmodic and fungicide. Thymol is also used in toothpaste and perfumery. It is used in a steeped liquid form against diarrhoea and flatulence. In India, the seeds are used as a household remedy for indigestion and colic and are used in poultices to relieve asthma and arthritis. It is also reported to have aphrodisiac properties (http //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajwain http //www.theepicentre.com/Spices/ ajowan.html). Thymol isolated from the oil is a powerful antiseptic and an ingredient in a number of skin ointments/powders, deodorants, mouthwashes, toothpastes and gargles. 

Aniseed is used in folk medicine as an antispasmodic agent. Tirapelli et al. (2007) report that ethanokwater (40 60) extract of aerial parts of anise (50pg/ml) inhibited acetylcholine-induced contraction in rat smooth muscle. 

Curry leaf has been used in folk medicine in China and other Asian countries as an analgesic, astringent, antidysenteric, anti-... 

In the Orient, numerous natural products have long been used in folk medicine. Also, in recent years some pharmaceutical industries and universities in Korea are placing their efforts on the quantification of cytotoxic phytochemicals from the natural resources. As a part of those efforts, the present authors are involved on the two-fold critical evaluations of the possible implementation of the supercritical fluid extraction(SFE) to obtain extracts from the natural resources one is the establishment of the optimum SFE condition for each sample resource which gives maximum extraction yield and cytotoxicity, and the other is the high-purity isolation of some specific compounds from the SFE total extracts. 

Chaksine (91) was isolated in 1935 by Siddiqui and Ahmad (143) from the seeds of Cassia absus L. (Caesalpiniaceae), a plant used in folk medicine. On the basis of degradation reaction products, Wiesner et al. proposed structure 91 (144), but Singh et al. arrived at a different structure (92) that would satisfy the experimental data (145). Final proof of structure 91 was obtained... 

Calyone (27) and precalyone (28), the latter showing tumour inhibitory activity, have been isolated from Roylea calycina (Labiatae), and coleosol (29) is a manoyl oxide derivative which has been isolated from another of the Labiatae used in folk medicine. Coleus forskohlii ... 

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