Uses, lead

Producing lead—calcium—aluminum alloys is difficult. Calcium and aluminum can be added simultaneously to lead using a calcium (73 wt %)—aluminum (27 wt %) master alloy (11) (see Aluminumand aluminum alloys). Using this method, the calcium and aluminum contents can be precisely controlled. Pressed pellets of metallic aluminum andmetaUic calcium are also used. 

Most uses of lead in chemical compounds other than in storage batteries are dissipative. The greater part of the lead used in other forms is recoverable. 

Nuclear utiUties have sharply reduced the volume of low level radioactive waste over the years. In addition to treating wastes, utiUties avoid contamination of bulk material by limiting the contact with radioactive materials. Decontamination of used equipment and materials is also carried out. For example, lead used for shielding can be successfully decontaminated and recycled using an abrasive mixture of low pressure air, water, and alumina. 

Fig. 4. Examples of emission spectrometry as a diagnostic monitoring tool for plasma processing, (a) The removal of chlorine contamination from copper diode leads using a hydrogen—nitrogen plasma. Emissions are added together from several wavelengths, (b) The etching and eventual removal of a 50-p.m thick polyimide layer from an aluminum substrate, where (x ) and (° ) correspond to wavelengths (519.82 and 561.02 nm, respectively) for molecular CO2...

Antimony hardens the lead used in the manufacture of small arms ammunition. Antimony alloyed with lead is also used in cable covering, sheet and pipe, and collapsible tubes. In these appHcations, antimony is utilized to increase strength and inhibit corrosion. 

Beginning with the 1975 U.S. automobiles, catalytic converters were added to nearly all models to meet the more restrictive emission standards. Since the lead used in gasoline is a poison to the catalyst used in the converter, a scheduled introduction of unleaded gasoline was also required. The U.S. petroleum industry simultaneously introduced unleaded gasoline into the marketplace. 

Solder (alloy of tin and lead) used for joining metals, e.g. in eleetrieal eireuits. 

In the United States, the leading use of alternative fuels is not as standalone fuels, but as additives to petroleum-based gasoline and diesel fuel. For example, gasoline sold m much of the United States is 10 percent ethanol or 10 percent methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). 

Gunmetals are alloys of copper, tin and zinc, with or without lead, used in the cast condition. Commonly used alloys are (a) 10Sn-2Zn, and b) 5Sn-5Zn-5Pb. 

The major uses of lead in the UK are in batteries, and in sheet and pipe of which the vast majority is sheet for building purposes. These applications account for about one third each of lead used. This situation is unique, since in all other countries batteries account for most of the lead market. A small but very important application is sheet and pipe for the chemical industry. Lead is no longer installed for water services. Lead cable sheathing which accounts for 5% is in general decline, but is valued in niche applications such as on oil rigs where resistance to hydrocarbons is important. The use of lead for anodes accounts for a very small tonnage, but is still of great importance to the industries which use them. 

Corrosion data reported as weight losses can be misleading because of the high density of lead volume losses or yearly penetration figures are to be preferred for this metal. It should also be remembered that in chemical applications the thickness of lead used is usually greater than that of other metals, and higher corrosion rates, by themselves, are therefore not so serious. 

Organometallic compounds such as alkylmercury fungicides, and tetraethyl lead, used as an antiknock in petrol, are neurotoxic, especially to the central nervous system of vertebrates (Wolfe et al. 1998, Environmental Health Criteria 101, and Chapter 8,... 

No, of course, I don t agree with it. Patterson insisted, If their income, their economic dependency involve the interests of lead-using industries, then their viewpoints are oriented this way. ... 

Hurd, N.A. and Sternberg, S.P.K., Bioremoval of aqueous lead using Lemna minor, International Journal of Phytoremediation, 10 (4), 278-288, 2008. 

Ozturk, S. and Senkan, S. (2002) Discovery of new fuel-lean NO reduction catalyst leads using combinatorial methodologies. Appl. Catal. B Environ., 38, 243. 

Although the element is a metalloid, the long, brittle, crystals have a metallic shine. The white, tasteless oxide (arsenic trioxide As203) has been famous and notorious ("inheritance powder") even after centuries traces can be found in bodies. The arsenic compound "Salvarsan" was first used by Paul Ehrlich for the treatment of syphilis — the start of chemotherapy. Popular today as a semiconducting material. Component of LEDs (light-emitting diodes) and lasers. Arsenic hardens lead, used earlier in letter-press printing, today only for lead shot. 

Most lead used by industry comes from mined ores ("primary") or from recycled scrap metal or batteries ("secondary"). Human activities (such as the former use of "leaded" gasoline) have spread lead and substances that contain lead to all parts of the environment. For example, lead is in air, drinking water, rivers, lakes, oceans, dust, and soil. Lead is also in plants and animals that people may eat. See Chapter 3 for more information on the physical and chemical properties of lead. Chapter 4 contains more information on the production and use of lead. 

Lead is produced from both primary (i.e., mined ore) and secondary (i.e., scrap metal and wastes) sources, and is imported by the United States. In 1997, production from primary and secondary sources was 343,000 metric tons and 1.1 million metric tons, respectively (Smith 1998), and imports reached 265,000 metric tons (Larrabee 1998 Smith 1998). Approximately 1.6 million metric tons of lead were consumed in the United States in 1997 (Smith 1998). Of lead used in 1997, 86.9% was used for storage batteries, 7.8% was used in metal products, and 5.3% was used in miscellaneous applications (Smith 1998). Because of the adverse health effects associated with exposure to lead, its use in paints, ceramic products, gasoline additives (now banned), and solder has declined dramatically in recent years. In 1997,... 

Landis JR, Flegal, KM. 1988. A generalized Mantel-Haenszel analysis of the regression of blood pressure on blood lead using NHANES II data. Environ Health Perspect 78 35-41. 

Milbum H, Mitran E. Crockford GW. 1976. An investigation of lead workers for subclinical effects of lead using three performance tests. Ann Occup Hyg 19 239-249. 

Calculate the approximate atomic weight of lead using its specific heat, 0.12 J/g deg, and the law of Dulong and Petit. 

---