Matter of states

Calculate the ratio of effusion rates of oxygen (02) to hydrogen (H2). 

Methane (CH4) effuses at a rate of 2.45 mol/s. What will be the effusion rate of argon (Ar) under the same conditions  

The effusion rate of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is 1.50 mol/s. Another gas under similar conditions effuses at a rate of 1.25 mol/s. What is the molar mass of the second gas  

The pressure of a gas in a manometer is 12.9 mm Hg. Express this value in each of the following units. 

The vapor pressure of water is 2.3 kPa at 23°C. What is the vapor pressure of water at this temperature expressed in atmospheres  

We use the descriptions of atoms, molecules, elements, and compounds given earlier in this 

Identify the state of matter represented by each of the following models. 

In a solid, the molecules are held close together in a regular arrangement. In a liquid, the molecules are close together but are randomly arranged because they flow past one another. In a gas, molecules are far apart. 

Unless otheiwise noted, all content on this page is Cengage Learning. 

Weast (Ed.), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75th ed., Boca Raton, FL CRC Press, 1994. 

We are an intelligent species and the use of our intelligence quite properly gives us pleasure. In this respect the brain is like a muscle. When it is in use we feel very good. 

A solid has a definite shape and volume regardless of the container into which it is placed. 

Each of these separate phases is discussed in separate sections in this chapter. Everyone is familiar with the three states of matter for water  

A quantity of a gas is mostly empty space. That this is so is rather dramatically illustrated by comparison of the high volume of gas compared with the same amount 

3 Identify and explain the differences among gases, liquids, and solids in terms of (a) visible properties, (b) distance between particles, and (c) particle movement. 

According to the kinetic molecular theory, the speed at which particles move is faster at higher temperatures and slower at lower temperatures. As the temperature of a sample rises, the faster-moving particles tend to separate from each other. When that happens, the sample exists as a gas. A gas must be held in a closed container to prevent the particles from escaping into the surrounding space. The particles move in a random fashion inside the container. They fill it completely, occupying its full volume. 

As temperature decreases further, particle movement becomes more and more sluggish. Eventually the particles no longer move among each other. Their movement is reduced to vibrating, or shaking, in fixed positions relative to each other. This is the 

Another state of matter is plasma, which consists of positive ions and free electrons in a gaslike state. Examples of plasmas include the substances inside fluorescent lights and neon signs. 

Completely independent (random) each particle may go anyplace in a closed container 

It is highly probable that all substances, which are not decomposed when heated, are capable of existing in the three forms of solid, liquid, and gas. There are, however, some substances which are only known in two forms—as alcohol or in a single 

A vapor is an aeriform fluid into which a substance, solid or liquid at the ordinary temperature, is converted by elevation of temperature, or by diminution of pressure. Since the liquefaction of the so-called permanent gases, the distinction between gases and vapors is only one of degree and of convenience. A liquid is said to be volatile when, like ether, it is readily converted into vapor. It is said to be fixed if, like olive oil, it does not yield a vapor when, heated. Certain solids are directly volatile, like camphor, passing from the condition of solid to-that of vapor without liquefaction. 

Although we have no direct experimental evidence of the existence of a limit to this divisibility, we are warranted in believing that matter is not infinitely divisible. A strong argnment in favor of this view being that, after physical subdivision has reached the limit of its power with regard to compound substances, these may be further divided into dissimilar bodies by chemical means. 

The limit of mechanical subdivision is the molecule of the physi-ei, the smallest quantity of matter with which he has to deal, the smallest quantity that is capable of free existence. 

and molecules cohere to form bulk matter. The broadest classification of the resulting materials is as gas, Uquid, or solid. The term state has many different meanings in chemistry, and it is important to keep them all in mind. Here we review the terms state of matter and physical state  

At a macroscopic (observational) level, we distinguish the three states of matter by noting the behavior of a substance enclosed in a rigid container  

A gas is a fluid form of matter that fills the container it occupies. 

A liquid is a fluid form of matter that possesses a well-defined sinface and (in a gravitational field) fills the lower part of the container it occupies. 

A solid retains its shape regardless of the shape of the container it occupies. 

Gases expand, diffuse, exert pressure, and can be compressed because they are in a low-density state consisting of tiny, constantly-moving particles. 

EHEJIES Intermolecular forces—including dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen bonds—determine a substance s state at a given temperature. 

The particles in solids and liquids have a limited range of motion and are not easily compressed. 

EHEKS Matter changes phase when energy is added or removed. 

The iodine thermometer contains a few grams of iodine inside a sealed, round-bottom flask. 

The photochemistry of vision depends on a quantum-mechanical foundation and involves states of matter that may not be familiar to the average investigator. These must be carefully defined. In the absence of careful definition, it is impossible to account for the spectral characteristics of vision. Recently, science has defined a variety of states of matter beyond the conventional gas, liquid and solid. These states may each be observed in several forms 

Technology has spawned the development of many man-made liquid crystals. However, it should be noted that most organic hydrocarbons can exist in a liquid crystalline configuration. When they exist within a very limited temperature range, they may exhibit unusual properties. This range is frequently defined as the biological temperature range. 

As the complexity of molecules increases, it is found that they can exist in a variety of liquid crystalline states. 

Chemistry is the science and study of the material world. It is generally accepted that there are three states of matter, solid, liquid and gaseous, and the chemicals that make up the materials of the world involve the chemical elements or molecules. 

This chapter emphasizes several aspects of chemistry. It begins with a brief discussion of the nature of matter and the states of matter. Next follows a discussion of the fundamental subatomic particles that make up all matter and explains how these are assembled to produce atoms. In tnm, atoms join together to make compounds. Chemical reactions and chemical equations that represent them are discussed. Solution chemistry is especially important to aquatic chemistry and is addressed in a separate section. The important, vast discipline of organic chemistry is crucial to all parts of the environment and is addressed in Chapter 20. 

Liquids tend to dissolve solids, gases, and other liquids to produce solutions. Solutions, especially those in liquid water, are very important in environmental and toxicological chemistry and 

Water collects on a bathroom mirror as you shower, a full bottle of water shatters in a freezer, and a glass object breaks when it is dropped. You will be able to explain such familiar events after you learn more about the different states of matter. 

Visit the Chemistry Web site at chemistrymc.com to find links about the states of matter. 

Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice. At room temperature, dry ice is used to create the illusion of fog on stage. 

You know that an object sinks or fioats in water based on its density. in this activity, you wiii expiore an exception to this ruie. 

Pour about 400 ml of water into a 600-mL beaker. Fioat the pin on the surface of the water. 

A plasma TV became popular during the last decade. 

Through heating and cooling (or changing pressure), matter may alter from one state to another, (names and directions of these changes are given) as follows  

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Percus J K 1982 Non uniform fluids The Liquid State of Matter Fluids, Simple and Complex ed E W Montroll and J L Lebowitz (Amsterdam North-Holland)... 

Barker J A and Henderson D 1976 What is a liquid Understanding the states of matter Rev. Mod. Phys. 48 587... 

Castieman A W Jr and Bowen K H Jr 1996 Ciusters structure, energetics, and dynamics of intermediate states of matter J. Phys. Chem. 100 12 911 -44... 

We are all familiar with tire tliree states of matter gases, liquids and solids. In tire 19tli century the liquid crystal state was discovered [1 and 2] tliis can be considered as tire fourtli state of matter [3].The essential features and properties of liquid crystal phases and tlieir relation to molecular stmcture are discussed here. Liquid crystals are encountered in liquid crystal displays (LCDs) in digital watches and otlier electronic equipment. Such applications are also considered later in tliis section. Surfactants and lipids fonn various types of liquid crystal phase but this is discussed in section C2.3. This section focuses on low-molecular-weight liquid crystals, polymer liquid crystals being discussed in tire previous section. 

Templer R and Attard G 1991 The fourth state of matter New Scientist 130 25-9... 

The plasma state is often referred to as tire fourtli state of matter [1]. It is characterized by tire presence of free positive (and sometimes also negative) ions and negatively charged electrons in a neutral background gas. The... 

A state of matter where a substance is held at a temperature and pressure that exceeds its critical temperature and pressure. 

Surfaces are formed in the transition from one state of matter to another, whether the two phases are chemically distinct or not. Thus, surfaces exist at interphases or interfaces between two phases of either the same or different materials. For example, the surface of an ice cube in a glass of water represents an interface between two phases that are identical in chemical composition. The surface of a straw in the same glass of water represents an example of an interface between chemically distinct materials. 

Liquid crystals represent a state of matter with physical properties normally associated with both soHds and Hquids. Liquid crystals are fluid in that the molecules are free to diffuse about, endowing the substance with the flow properties of a fluid. As the molecules diffuse, however, a small degree of long-range orientational and sometimes positional order is maintained, causing the substance to be anisotropic as is typical of soflds. Therefore, Hquid crystals are anisotropic fluids and thus a fourth phase of matter. There are many Hquid crystal phases, each exhibiting different forms of orientational and positional order, but in most cases these phases are thermodynamically stable for temperature ranges between the soHd and isotropic Hquid phases. Liquid crystallinity is also referred to as mesomorphism. 

Plasma can be broadly defined as a state of matter in which a significant number of the atoms and/or molecules are electrically charged or ionized. The generally accepted definition is limited to situations whereia the numbers of negative and positive charges are equal, and thus the overall charge of the plasma is neutral. This limitation on charge leaves a fairly extensive subject area. The vast majority of matter ia the universe exists ia the plasma state. Interstellar space, interplanetary space, and even the stars themselves are plasmas. 

Work on plasmas has roots extending back to the Greeks who found that amber mbbed with various materials tended to attract certain objects. The concept of plasma as the fourth state of matter can be traced to Sir William Crookes (2) in 1879. "So distinct are these phenomena from anything which occurs in air or gas at the ordinary tension, that we are led to assume that we are here brought face to face with Matter in a Fourth state or condition, a condition so far removed from the State of gas as a gas is from a Hquid." This description has been shown to be accurate over many years of experimentation and appHcation of plasmas. 

The term glass has two meanings, ie, the material and a state of matter. The glassy or vitreous condition is where the atoms of the material have a random orientation. This amorphous or noncrystalline nature leads to physical properties typical of the product caHed glass, including unpredictable breaks, no sharp melting temperature, and no heat of fusion. 

Air pollutants may also be classified as to the origin and state of matter ... 

Fortov, V.E., Models of the Equations of State of Matter, presented at the Conference on Equations of State, Cheget, Kabardino-Balkar ASSR, November 1978. 

It is because these primary and secondary bonds can form that matter condenses from the gaseous state to give liquids and solids. Five distinct condensed states of matter,... 

A gas is defined as the state of matter distinguished from solid and liq uid states by very low density and viscosity, relatively great expansion and contraction with changes in pressure and temperature, and the ability to diffuse readily, distributing itself uniformly throughout any container... 

At the start of this Chapter, an essay by Peter Day was quoted in which he lauds the use of soft chemistry , exemplifying this by citing the use of organometallic precursors for making thin films of various materials used in microelectronics. The same approach, but without the softness, is increasingly used to make ceramic fibres here, ceramic includes carbon (sometimes regarded as almost an independent state of matter because it is found in so many forms). 

Important common physical properties related to these states of matter are summarized in Table 3.3. 

Gas A state of matter in which a substance completely fills the region in which it is contained, no matter how small the amount. Or any fuel in a gaseous form for use in an atmospheric or forced-draft burner. 

Gas The state of matter characterized by complete molecular mobility and unlimited expansion at standard temperature and pressure. 

The term "pliase" for a pure substance indicates a state of matter - that is, solid, liquid, or gas. For mi. tures, however, a more stringent connotation must be used, since a totally liquid or solid system may contain more dian one phase. A phase is characterized by uniformity or homogeneity die same composition and properties must c. ist tliroughout the pliase region. At most temperatures and pressures, a pure substance normally exists as a single phase. At certain temperatures mid pressures, two or perhaps even dmee phases can coe.xist in equilibrium. 

The future price of ionic liquids will also reflect intellectual property considerations. While the currently most frequently requested ionic liquids, the tetrafluoroborate and hexafluorophosphate ionic liquids, are all patent-free, many recently developed, new ionic liquid systems are protected by state of matter patents. Table 2.2-2 gives an overview of some examples published after 1999. 

Table 2.2-1 Selected examples of state of matter patents concerning ionic liquids published...

Without a doubt, tetrafluoroborate and hexafluorophosphate ionic liquids have shortcomings for larger-scale technical application. The relatively high cost of their anions, their insufficient stability to hydrolysis for long-term application in contact with water (formation of corrosive and toxic HF during hydrolysis ), and problems related to their disposal have to be mentioned here. New families of ionic liquid that should meet industrial requirements in a much better way are therefore being developed. FFowever, these new systems will probably be protected by state of matter patents. 

In this respect, there is one important statement to make. It is our belief that the owners of state of matter patents for promising new classes of ionic liquids should never stop or hinder academic research dealing with these substances. On the contrary, we think that only through fundamental academic research will we be able to gain a full understanding of a given material over time. Only this full understanding will allow the full scope and limitations of a new family of ionic liquids to be explored. 

Plasma is a state of matter consisting of neutral excited radicals and ionic particles or fragments of molecules and also comprising electrons and photons. If a solid... 

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