States and Properties of Matter

Amethyst, a solid, is a purple form of quartz (Si02). 

A liquid has a definite volume but not a definite shape. In a liquid, the particles move slowly in random directions but are sufficiently attracted to each other to maintain a definite volume, although not a rigid structure. Thus, when water, oil, or vinegar is poured from one container to another, the liquid maintains its own volume but takes the shape of the new container. 

A gas does not have a definite shape or volume. In a gas, the particles are far apart, have little attraction to each other, and move at high speeds, taking the shape and volume of their container. When you inflate a bicycle tire, the air, which is a gas, fills the entire volume of the tire. The propane gas in a tank fills the entire volume of the tank. Table 3.1 

Shape Has a definite shape Takes the shape of the container Takes the shape of the container 

Volume Has a definite volume Has a definite volume Fills the volume of the container 

Arrangement of Particles Fixed, very close Random, close Random, far apart 

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Chapter 3 has a new order of topics 3.1 Classification of Matter, 3.2 States and Properties of Matter, 3.3 Temperature, 3.4 Energy, 3.5 Energy and Nutrition, 3.6 Specific Heat, and 3.7 Changes of State. 

Chemistry is concerned with reactions, structures, and properties of matter. The scope of this is immense. Alone the chemistry of the solid state cannot be treated in a single monograph to any depth. The course of processes in space and time, and their rates in terms of state variables is the field of kinetics. The understanding of kinetics in the solid state is the aim of this book. 

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy(XPS) or electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis(ESCA), as it is often called, has developed into a powerful analytical technique which has found applications in many branches of physics and chemistry. It provides information about the electronic states and electronic structure in solids, liquids, and gases. In the last twenty five years since its birth, XPS has made fundamental contribution to the understanding of a large variety of phenomena and properties of matter. In the field of explosives and propellants also it has made significant contribution, some of which have been given in the accompanying article [1] while more will be discussed in the present one. 

The quantum mechanical concept of wave-particle duality means that neither the particle nor the wave model can be used consistently to explain every behaviour and property of matter and light, A wave function is used to describe the probability of finding an electron in a given volume of space around the nucleus of an atom, A wave function is a function describing the probability of a particle s quantum state as a function of position and time,... 

The states and properties of gases, liquids, and solids depend on the types of attractive forces between their particles. Matter undergoes a change of state when it is converted from one state to another state (see Figure 10.3). 

Castleman A W and Mark T D 1986 Cluster ions their formation, properties, and role in eluoidating the properties of matter in the oondensed state Gaseous Ion Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry ed J FI Futrell (New York Wiley)... 

We are all familiar with tire tliree states of matter gases, liquids and solids. In tire 19tli century the liquid crystal state was discovered [1 and 2] tliis can be considered as tire fourtli state of matter [3].The essential features and properties of liquid crystal phases and tlieir relation to molecular stmcture are discussed here. Liquid crystals are encountered in liquid crystal displays (LCDs) in digital watches and otlier electronic equipment. Such applications are also considered later in tliis section. Surfactants and lipids fonn various types of liquid crystal phase but this is discussed in section C2.3. This section focuses on low-molecular-weight liquid crystals, polymer liquid crystals being discussed in tire previous section. 

During the nineteenth century the growth of thermodynamics and the development of the kinetic theory marked the beginning of an era in which the physical sciences were given a quantitative foundation. In the laboratory, extensive researches were carried out to determine the effects of pressure and temperature on the rates of chemical reactions and to measure the physical properties of matter. Work on the critical properties of carbon dioxide and on the continuity of state by van der Waals provided the stimulus for accurate measurements on the compressibiUty of gases and Hquids at what, in 1885, was a surprisingly high pressure of 300 MPa (- 3,000 atmor 43,500 psi). This pressure was not exceeded until about 1912. 

As we saw in Chapter 3, the founding text of modern materials science was Frederick Seitz s The Modern Theory of Solids (1940) an updated version of this, also very influential in its day, was Charles Wert and Robb Thomson s Physies of Solids (1964). Alan Cottrell s Theoretical Structural Metallurgy appeared in 1948 (see Chapter 5) although devoted to metals, this book was in many ways a true precursor of materials science texts. Richard Weiss brought out Solid State Physics for Metallurgists in 1963. Several books such as Properties of Matter (1970), by Mendoza and Flowers, were on the borders of physics and materials science. Another key precursor book, still cited today, was Darken and Gurry s book. Physical Chemistry of Metals (1953), followed by Swalin s Thermodynamics of Solids. 

Following the general trend of looldng for a molecular description of the properties of matter, self-diffusion in liquids has become a key quantity for interpretation and modeling of transport in liquids [5]. Self-diffusion coefficients can be combined with other data, such as viscosities, electrical conductivities, densities, etc., in order to evaluate and improve solvodynamic models such as the Stokes-Einstein type [6-9]. From temperature-dependent measurements, activation energies can be calculated by the Arrhenius or the Vogel-Tamman-Fulcher equation (VTF), in order to evaluate models that treat the diffusion process similarly to diffusion in the solid state with jump or hole models [1, 2, 7]. 

Chemistry is concerned with the properties of matter, its distinguishing characteristics. A physical property of a substance is a characteristic that we can observe or measure without changing the identity of the substance. For example, a physical property of a sample of water is its mass another is its temperature. Physical properties include characteristics such as melting point (the temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid), hardness, color, state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas), and density. A chemical property refers to the ability of a substance to change into another substance. For example, a chemical property of the gas hydrogen is that it reacts with (burns in) oxygen to produce water a chemical property of the metal zinc is that it reacts with acids to produce hydrogen gas. The rest of the book is concerned primarily with chemical properties here we shall review some important physical properties. 

Quantum physics makes similar pronouncements when it states that the electron is not somewhere or sometime it is a cloud of probabilities and that is all one can say about it. A similar quality adheres to my idea of time and the comparison of time to an object. If time is an object, then the obvious question to be asked is what is the smallest duration relevant to physical processes The scientific approach would be to keep dividing time into still smaller increments in order to find out if a discrete unit exists. What one is looking for by doing this is a chronon, or a particle of time. I believe the chronon exists, but it is not distinct from the atom. Atomic systems are chronons atoms are simply far more complicated than had been suspected. I believe that atoms have undescribed properties that can account not only for the properties of matter, but for the behavior of space/time as well. 

The metal-solution interface as the locus of the deposition processes. This interface has two components a metal and an aqueous ionic solution. To understand this interface, it is necessary to have a basic knowledge of the structure and electronic properties of metals, the molecular structure of water, and the structure and properties of ionic solutions. The structure and electronic properties of metals are the subject matter of solid-state physics. The structure and properties of water and ionic solutions are (mainly) subjects related to chemical physics (and physical chemistry). Thus, to study and understand the structure of the metal-solution interface, it is necessary to have some knowledge of solid-state physics as well as of chemical physics. Relevant presentations of these subjects are given in Chapters 2 and 3. 

The essential differences between the properties of matter when in bulk and in the colloidal state were first described by Thomas Graham. The study of colloid chemistry involves a consideration of the form and behaviour of a new phase, the interfacial phase, possessiug unique properties. In many systems reactions both physical and chemical are observed which may be attributed to both bulk and interfacial phases. Thus for a proper understanding of colloidal behaviour a knowledge of the properties of surfaces and reactions at interfaces is evidently desirable. 

Intermolecular forces are responsible for the condensed states of matter. The particles making up solids and liquids are held together by intermolecular forces, and these forces affect a number of the physical properties of matter in these two states. Intermolecular forces are quite a bit weaker than the covalent and ionic bonds discussed in Chapter 7. The latter requires several hundred to several thousand kilojoules per mole to break. The strength of intermolecular forces are a few to tens of kilojoules per... 

Since Lennard-Jones (6-12) potential has been widely used for calcn of properties of matter in the gaseous, liquid, and solid states, Hirschfelder et al (Ref 8e, pp 162ff) discuss it in detail. They show that the parameters o and ( of the potential function may be determined by analysis of the second virial coefficient of the LJD equation of state... 

The fourth state of matter, the plasma state , although rarely found at the surface of the earth, is the most commonly found state of matter when the known universe is considered. The plasma state, consisting of a neutral collection of electrons and positive ions, may have a very wide range of densities. The production and properties of this state are described. 

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