Scientific Developments

Parallel to these endeavors, work started in Germany on new concepts to account for electron correlation. The independent electron pair approach (lEPA) was developed by Ahlrichs and Kutzelnigg, followed a few years later by the CEPA (coupled electron pair approach).The relation of these methods to contemporary Moller-Plesset second order (MP2) and coupled cluster treatments is discussed in Ref. 60. Work on circular dichroism by Ruch and on the chemical shift by Voitlander showed the variety of ab initio problems treated. The special priority program of the DFG from 1966-1970 demonstrated the intended impact. 

Before concluding the decade 1960—1970, it should be mentioned that theoretical chemistry started to influence not only chemical research in Germany but slowly became an independent field for which professorships were created at universities. H. Preul moved from the MPI in Munich to a chair of theoretical chemistry at the University of Stuttgart in 1969, while Diercksen remained at the MPI at Miinchen. Ludwig Hofacker, coming from Northwestern University near Chicago, took the chair at the Technical University of Munich, E. Ruch was appointed professor of theoretical chemistry at the Freie Universitat of Berlin, and Karl Heinz Hansen became professor of theoretical chemistry at the University of Bonn. 

Some of the German universities had been able to obtain International Business Machines and Control Data Corporation machines. (For example, Munster had an IBM 360-50 around 1968, while Mainz and Giefien had 

CDC 3300 computers around 1968 and 1970.) But there was a definite tendency from the DFG (in its funding and advisory capacity) to support the German AEG Telefunken company which offered the Telefunken Rechner TR4 and the larger model TR440. The DRZ, for example, had applied for an IBM 360-75 to replace their IBM 7090 hoping for an increase in efficiency of a factor of 10, but the DFG had ordered for them a TR440. 

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Chemistry, like any scientific discipline, relies heavily on experimental observations, and therefore on data. Until a few years ago, the usual way to publish information on recent scientific developments was to release it in books or journals. In chemistry, the enormous increase in the number of compounds and the data concerning them resulted in increasingly ineffective data-handling, on the side of the producers as well as the users. One way out of this disaster is the electronic processing, by computer methods, of this huge amount of data available in chemistry. Compared with other scientific disciplines that only use text and numbers for data transfer, chemistry has an additional, special challenge molecules. The molecular species consist of atoms and bonds that hold them together. Moreover, compounds... 

Biochemistry resulted from the early elucidation of the pathway of enzymatic conversion of glucose to ethanol by yeasts and its relation to carbohydrate metaboHsm in animals. The word enzyme means "in yeast," and the earfler word ferment has an obvious connection. Partly because of the importance of wine and related products and partly because yeasts are relatively easily studied, yeasts and fermentation were important in early scientific development and stiU figure widely in studies of biochemical mechanisms, genetic control, cell characteristics, etc. Fermentation yeast was the first eukaryote to have its genome elucidated. 

Trade association of manufacturers, marketers, formula-tors, and suppliers of household, industrial, and personal care products. Acts as a clearinghouse for legislative and scientific developments that affect potentially toxic products used in the home and businesses. 

Even the most complicated aspects of thermodynamics are based ultimately on three rather simple and straightforward laws. These laws and their extensions sometimes run counter to our intuition. However, once truly understood, the basic principles of thermodynamics become powerful devices for sorting out complicated chemical and biochemical problems. At this milestone in our scientific development, thermodynamic thinking becomes an enjoyable and satisfying activity. 

The scientific and technical corrosion literature has descriptions and lists of numerous chemical compounds that exhibit inhibiting properties. Of these only a very few are ever actually used in practical systems. This is partly due to the fact that in practice the desirable properties of an inhibitor usually extend beyond those simply relating to metal protection. Thus cost, toxicity, availability, etc. are of considerable importance as well as other more technical aspects (see Principles). Also, as in many other fields of scientific development, there is often a considerable time lag between laboratory development and practical application. In the field of inhibition the most notable example of this gap between discovery and application is the case of sodium nitrite. Originally reported in 1899 to have inhibitive properties, it remained effectively unnoticed until the 1940s it is now one of the most widely employed inhibitors. 

As indicated in the Preface, this book does not claim to be comprehensive. Fortunately there are a number of other books which cover all or some aspects of diazo chemistry and can be recommended for further reading. Some of these will be mentioned briefly in this section. Older books are not included. The latter are still useful, however, for chemists who are interested in the future of their science not just from a pragmatic viewpoint, but also with regard to identifying potentially fruitful future scientific developments based on old problems. Such problems were frequently not followed up in the past because no suitable methods or theoretical concepts were available at that time - but the necessary methods may be already available today or may become so in the future ... 

Electrochemistry is the basis of many important and modem applications and scientific developments such as nanoscale machining (fabrication of miniature devices with three dimensional control in the nanometer scale), electrochemistry at the atomic scale, scanning tunneling microscopy, transformation of energy in biological cells, selective electrodes for the determination of ions, and new kinds of electrochemical cells, batteries and fuel cells. 

Arguments against this rather simple way of proceeding can be based on the fact that the histoiy of chemistiy is simplified too far in order to produce suitable teaching material. Scientific developments are ripped out of their historical context and sometimes rudely simplified. Other concepts, like the historical problem-centred... 

The proceeding chapters give wimess of an overwhelming scientific development. Antiviral intervention has become a standard, and the worldwide availability of this innovation is perceived as a humanitarian matter of course with a value of its own. However, such an important therapy progress has to be seen in competition with other allocations of scarce funds. Health care resources are Umited - in one country more than in another, but in principle funds invested to antiretroviral intervention will not be available for prevention of HIV/AIDS or for the cure of other diseases. This fundamental scarcity calls for a rational utilization of existing resources and a scientific calculation of the socio-economic impact of antiretroviral intervention. 

Hessel et al. describe the state of the market implementation of micro reactors, as opposed to the scientific development (Figure 1.35) [239]. 

The rapid development of nanotechnology has revolutionized scientific developments in recent decades [1]. The synthesis, characterization, and application of functionalized nanoparticles are currently a very active field of research [2], Due to the size limitation of metal nanoparticles, they show very unique properties, which are called nano-size effect or quantum-size effect , which is different from those of both bulk metals and metal atoms. Such specific properties are usually dominated by the atoms located on the surface. In nanoparticles systems, the number of atoms located on the surface of the particles increases tremendously with decreasing of the particle diameter [3]. 

After so many developments (often worked out by an in-crowd of devoted, enthusiastic scientists), the time has come to transfer the results of these scientific developments to a wider audience. Not every scientist producing measurement data is interested in the theories worked out in so many vigorous discussions by leading groups. But every scientist using or producing data should be aware of the facts presented herein. The information, however, is of importance for an even wider audience than just the scientific circles. 

I do hope that this book will not only find a wide audience, but that it will also contribute something to progress in the world. This may sound somewhat grand and optimistic, but is it forbidden to dream that next century will indeed bring real progress to mankind Can this progress be based on anything else except scientific developments If this is to be so, then what other than sound measurement data can be the basis Sound measurements mean that data are accurate for the intended purpose and that the uncertain is known and taken into full account. 

A Readers Advisory to the Best Books on the History of Science. Written by 200 International Scholars, the 600 Comparative Essays Begin with a Bibliography of Important Works, Followed by Reviews of Those Sources in the Body of the Entry. Important Concepts and Processes, Phenomena, and Scientists As Well As Scientific Developments in Different Countries Are Covered... 

The chronology of the discovery of the elements is a textbook example of scientific development Three phenomena are particularly clear. 

SciFinder at http //www.cas.org/SCIFINDER/scicover2.html is an easy-to-use desktop research tool that allows the user to explore research topics, browse scientific journals, and access information on the most recent scientific developments. SciFinder Scholar is a desktop research tool designed especially for use by students and faculty to easily access the information in the CAS databases. With either tool, one can search Chemical Abstracts and the CA Registry by author name, research topic, substance identifier, chemical structure, or chemical reaction. 

Over the last 500 years, science has progressed at an accelerating pace from the beginnings of mathematical generality to a full set of conservation principles needed to address most problems. Yet fire, one of the earliest tools of mankind, needed the last 50 years to give it mathematical expression. Fire is indeed complex and that surely helped to retard its scientific development. But first, what is fire How shall we define it ... 

For another masterly introduction, try The World of Physical Chemistry by Keith Laidler, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995. Laidler is himself a proficient physical chemist. It represents a complete survey of the scientific development of physical chemistry from the 17th century to the present day. Excellent. 

Just as Herman Mark was an important initiator of the scientific development of polymer chemistry and physics in our century and has left his decisive stamp on it, so did he have a particular influence on the early phase of the scientific and industrial development of styrene monomer and polystyrene. In 1980, polystyrene can look back on 50 years of industrial production, which began at the end of 1930 at Badische Anilin- Soda-Fabrik (now BASF) in Ludwigshafen. 

When the Journal of Chemical Physics was founded in 1933, its first editor, Harold Urey, then associate professor of chemistry at Columbia University, wrote that "the boundary between the sciences of physics and chemistry has been completely bridged." 1 The appearance of the journal reflected the outcome of scientific developments during the last decades in which there had been a reshaping and reforging of links between two disciplines that had been largely autonomous since the early nineteenth century. 

Michael Mulkay, "Three Models of Scientific Development," Sociological Review 23 (1975) 509526,... 

Table 1 outlines the current status of scientific development for the dissolution or release testing from various dosage forms and recommends, where possible, the dissolution apparatus of first choice (13). Refer also to Chapter 2 for further description of the USP apparatus. 

We have the many years of research and the hard work of the researchers to thank for providing the treatments that we now have available for the many diseases that plague our society. Keeping the trust, interest, and confidence of the public will allow for continued, successful clinical research with new scientific developments and breakthroughs. 

Zeelen, F. J., Doctoral Thesis Stearoyl-Aminozuren Synthese, Spreiding, en Photochemie Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden (State University of Leiden) Leiden, Netherlands, 1956. We thank Dr. Zeelen (presently with Organon Scientific Development Group, Netherlands) for generously supplying us with a copy of his thesis and for permission to reproduce figures from it. 

The second steps are to utilize new scientific developments and analysis tools to focus on higher risk areas, and include trained product specialists as members of pharmaceutical inspection teams. 

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