Tools, earliest

STM found one of its earliest applications as a tool for probing the atomic-level structure of semiconductors. In 1983, the 7x7 reconstructed surface of Si(l 11) was observed for the first time [17] in real space all previous observations had been carried out using diffraction methods, the 7x7 structure having, in fact, only been hypothesized. By capitalizing on the spectroscopic capabilities of the technique it was also proven [18] that STM could be used to probe the electronic structure of this surface (figure B1.19.3). 

In the earliest days of on-line databases, all three indexing types coUapsed into the third. Using older manual tools, it was difficult to coordinate more than two or three concepts, but the computer made that easier. Each concept in a search can be represented by a string of synonyms or alternatives, and searching can be done for two such parameters or more. Thus, Boolean logic expressions can easily be constmcted as follows ... 

Optical devices or optical systems have provided most of the available strong shock data and were the primary tools used in the early shock-compression investigations. They are still the most widely used systems in fundamental studies of high explosives. The earliest systems, the flash gap and mirror systems on samples, provided discrete or continuous measurements of displacement versus time. 

Quantitative structure-reactivity analysis is one of the most powerful tools for elucidating the mechanisms of organic reactions. In the earliest study, Van Etten et al. 71) analyzed the pseudo-first-order rate constants for the alkaline hydrolysis of a variety of substituted phenyl acetates in the absence and in the presence of cyclodextrin. The... 

FIGURE 35 Copper vessel. Basket-shaped copper vessel from the Cave of the Treasure, Nahal Mishmar, Israel. Copper, one of the earliest used metals, has been one of the most important materials in the development of materials technology. Masses of native copper were being pounded into tools and ornaments as early as the tenth millennium b.c.e. Because of the relative ease with which it is recovered from its ores, its remarkable physical properties (high ductility, malleability, and thermal conductivity) and its resistance to corrosion, copper has been among the major metals in terms of the quantities consumed. 

There has been a notable change in the way that the GA has been used as it has become more popular in science. Some of the earliest applications of the GA in chemistry (for example, the work of Hugh Cartwright and Robert Long, and Andrew Tuson and Hugh Cartwright on chemical flowshops) used the GA as the sole optimization tool many more recent applications combine the GA with a second technique, such as an artificial neural network. 

Over the last 500 years, science has progressed at an accelerating pace from the beginnings of mathematical generality to a full set of conservation principles needed to address most problems. Yet fire, one of the earliest tools of mankind, needed the last 50 years to give it mathematical expression. Fire is indeed complex and that surely helped to retard its scientific development. But first, what is fire How shall we define it ... 

The earliest logic trees were based on engineering fault tree analysis methods. Today, companies use a number of variations or combinations of logic trees and call them by different names, such as Why Tree,< 9) Causal Tree,(20,21) Cause and Effect Logic Diagram (CELD),<22) and Multiple-Cause, Systems-Oriented Incident Investigation (MCS011).<23,24) tools have more similarities than differences. 

Since the earliest days of coal liquefaction processing and research, the need for correlations of coal properties with coal reactivity under direct hydroliquefaction conditions has been recognized by coal scientists. This article traces the history of reactivity correlations from the earliest work of Bergius through the classic work at the Bruceton Bureau of Mines during the 1940 s to the most recent advances in this subject. Particular emphasis in this review is placed on an examination of the contributions of Professor Peter Given and his co-workers. Reactivity methodologies and techniques for correlation are presented and critically evaluated for utility and applicability as predictive tools. 

One of the earliest attempts to describe the DNA/proteins minimal cell was by Morowitz (1967). Based on the enzymatic components of primary metabolism, Morowitz estimated that the size of a minimal cell should be about one-tenth smaller than mycoplasma. There were earlier significant insights to the field by Dyson (1982) as well as by Woese (1983) and Jay and Gilbert (1987). More recently, the reviews by Deamer and coworkers (Pohorille and Deamer, 2002) together with other researchers (Ono and Ikegami, 2000 Luisi, 2002a Oberholzer and Luisi, 2002) have sharpened the question and brought it into the perspective of the modern molecular tools. 

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