Safety radiation

Absorbed dose is the amount of radiation that is absorbed by the body. 

Curie (Ci) is a unit of measurement of radioactivity where 1 Ci = 3.7 x 10 ° decays per second. 

Exposure is the amount of radiation to which the body is exposed. 

Radiation absorbed dose (RAD) is a measure of the absorbed dose of ionizing radiation. 

Radioactive half-life is the time required for isotope radioactivity to decrease by 50 percent. 

Preview This section provides an overview of the principles of radiation safety in the laboratory. 

In addition to the blue glow and heat, Louis Slotin experienced a sour taste in his mouth [and] an intense burning sensation on his left hand. As soon as Slotin left the building he vomited, a common reaction from intense radiation. 

Thomas D. Brock, Scientist who researched early atomic-era incidents  

What lessons can be learned from this incident  

Laboratory Safety for Ionizing Radiation - The Radiation Safety Program 

As a background for this chapter. Fig. 1 provides a representation of the electromagnetic spectrum.Pi The spectrum runs from commercial power (extremely low frequency/electromagnetic fields) to the medical x-rays, and includes radiofrequency (RF), microwaves, and optical radiation which will discussed in the laser and UV sections. 

In addition to the electromagnetic spectrum, radiation hazards exist from a few radioisotope sources that are used in the semiconductor industry. The major operations of concern being krypton-85 fine leak systems and cobalt-60 irradiators. 

A great deal of uncertainty surrounds the question of adverse health effects from electromagnetic fields (EMFs). There is currently no consensus among the scientific community on the subject.Pil l Information in this section is based on the best available data at the time this chapter was written. Many studies are in progress that may help to provide further insights into the question of health risks associated with exposure to EMF. 

Until 1979, there was no evidence associating extremely low frequency (ELF) EMFs with cancer. That year, Wertheimer and Leeper reported a substantial excess of high-current electrical wiring configurations near the homes of children in Denver, Colorado, who had died of brain cancer and leukemia. This association was not based on actual measurements of ELF fields, but rather, wiring codes were used as a surrogate indicator of magnetic fields from the power transmissions lines and lines 

There have been over 40 studies of adult cancers and occupational exposures to ELF. Problems with the methodologies used in these occupational studies prevent firm conclusions from being drawn, ril These problems are  

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In design X-ray TV introseopes can be manufaetured both in a bunker version and witli an autonomous radiation shielding to provide radiation safety under plant eonditions... 

The cabinet system includes full radiation safety in the form of dual, forced breaking door interlocks so that there can be no risk of exposure outside the cabinet. Equally the system is equipped with emergency stops and red lights indicating when X-rays are on, in accordance with the international regulations. 

Special demands are made to the laboratories that perform radiographic testing. They must observe sanitary norms and rules of radiation safety in their activities. Transportation of the equipment for implement works on site has to ensure observance of the requirements of the radiation safety. 

M. W. Shupe and co-workers. Radiation Safety in Mot Facilities, Proceedings of Symposium, Saclay, France, Oct. 13—17, 1969, IAEA Publication STl/PUB/238, Vienna, Austria, 1970. 

Radiation safety enclosure X-ray shutter and attenuator assembly... 

Radiation Safety of Gamma and Electron Irradiation Facilities, Safety Series No. 107, International Atomic Energy Ageney, Vienna, 1992. 

Radioactive iodine is given by tlie primary health care provider, orally as a single dose The effects of iodides are evident within 24 hours, with maximum effects attained after 10 to 15 days of continuous therapy. If the patient is hospitalized, radiation safety precautions identified by the hospital s department of nuclear medicine are followed. 

Reference materials for radioisotopes have mainly been used for purposes relating to nuclear and radiation safety. Historically, the development of such materials first arose from the need to assess the risk to human populations caused by worldwide contamination of food and the environment as a consequence of atomic bomb testing - particularly from bombs exploded in the atmosphere. Even now, although atmospheric testing ceased many years ago, the residues from these tests still remain the main source of radionuclides such as Cs and °Sr in the global environment (though locally, other sources may be more important in some countries). 

Dose Equivalent (DE)—A quantity used in radiation safety practice to account for the relative biological effectiveness of the several types of radiation. It expresses all radiations on a common scale for calculating the effective absorbed dose. It is defined as the product of the absorbed dose in rad and certain modifying factors. (The unit of dose equivalent is the rem. In SI units, the dose equivalent is the sievert, which equals 100 rem.)... 

Rem—A unit of dose equivalent that is used in the regulatory, administrative, and engineering design aspects of radiation safety practice. The dose equivalent in rem is numerically equal to the absorbed dose in rad multiplied by the quality factor (1 rem is equal to 0.01 sievert). 

Dose equivalent or rem is a special radiation protection quantity that is used, for administrative and radiation safety purposes only, to express the absorbed dose in a manner which considers the difference in biological effectiveness of various kinds of ionizing radiation. The ICRU has defined the dose equivalent, H, as the product of the absorbed dose, D, and the quality factor, Q, at the point of interest in biological tissue. This relationship is expressed as H = D x Q. The dose equivalent concept is applicable only to doses that are not great enough to produce biomedical effects. 

RBE is used to denote the experimentally determined ratio of the absorbed dose from one radiation type to the absorbed dose of a reference radiation required to produce an identical biologic effect under the same conditions. Gamma rays from cobalt-60 and 200-250 keV x-rays have been used as reference standards. The term RBE has been widely used in experimental radiobiology, and the term quality factor used in calculations of dose equivalents for radiation safety purposes (ICRP 1977 NCRP 1971 UNSCEAR 1982). RBE applies only to a specific biological end point, in a specific exposure, under specific conditions to a specific species. There are no generally accepted values of RBE. 

Jonassen, N., Electrial Properties of Radon Daughters, presented to the International Conference on Occupational Radiation Safety and Mining, Toronto, Canada (1984). 

Pogorski, S. and C.R. Phillips, The Transient Response of Radon and Thoron Chambers, Proc. Int. Conf. Occupational Radiation Safety in Mining, (H. Stocker, ed), vol. 2, 394, Can. Nucl. Assoc. (1985). 

Jonassen, N., Electrical Properties of Radon Daughters in Proc. Int. Conf. Occupational Radiation Safety in Mining,... 

Vandrish, G., K. Theriault and F. Ryan, The Pylon 190 Standard a Novel Filter Calibration Standard for Alpha-Spectrometry, in Proceedings International Conference on Occupational Radiation Safety in Mining (H. Stocker, ed) vol. 2, pp. 390-393, Canadian Nuclear Association, Toronto (1984). 

SC-40 Biological Aspects of Radiation Protection Criteria SC-41 Radiation Resulting from Nuclear Power Generation SC-42 Industrial Applications of X Rays and Sealed Sources SC-44 Radiation Associated with Medical Examinations SC-45 Radiation Received by Radiation Employees SC-46 Operational Radiation Safety... 

Caution Handle all radioactive substances according to the radiation safety regulations instituted at each facility approved to handle such materials. Use adequate precautions to protect personal safety and the environment. Dispose of radioactive waste only by following approved guidelines. 

A protocol for the light microscope radioautography of Lilium longiflorum pollen tubes labeled with [14C]-proline follows. This protocol, which does not require tissue embedding in paraffin or Paraplast, can be modified for paraffin-embedded tissues see Chapter 2). Thus, by employment of the protocol, together with the preceding introductory information in this chapter, one should be able to derive a protocol applicable to the cells or tissue in question. The performance of the protocol requires approval of an institution s Radiation Safety Officer. An inventory of incoming radionuclides, their presence in secondary containers, and their waste must be carefully recorded. The waste must be further broken down into solid waste, liquid waste, and animal carcasses to aid in its proper disposal. 

AEC, Radiation safety in atomic energy activities staff report to the Atomic Energy Commission, Twenty-First Semiannual Report, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. 

Figure 22 Artist s rendition of a person with concealed weapons seen using an ultra-low-dose backscatter system. Imaging is effective, but radiation safety and privacy issues may arise.

Data and information regarding an electronic product submitted as part of the procedures for obtaining an exemption from notification of a radiation safety defect or failure of compliance of a radiation safety defect or failure of compliance with a radiation safety performance standard, described in subpart D of part 1003. 

Low- and intermediate-level waste is currently converted to cement and bitumen waste forms, but the existing trend is toward an increase in the radiation safety levels and reliability of immobilization. From this point of view, LILW should also be incorporated in vitreous and crystalline matrices. Current Russian and US experience on vitrification of such waste demonstrates the potential of the melting/vitriflcation process. Major advantages of vitrification over bituminization and cementation are a greater waste volume reduction, higher productivity, and higher durability of the final product. 

Glagolenko, Yu, V., Dzekun, E. G., Drozhko, E. G., Medvedev, G. M., Rovny, S. I. Suslov, A. P. 1996. Radioactive waste management strategy at production association Mayak . Issues of Radiation Safety, 2, 3-10 (in Russian). 

J. EIKENBERG, H. BEER S. BAJO Division for Radiation Safety and Security, Paul Scherrer Institute, CH-5232 Villigen, Switzerland (e-mail jost.eikenberg psi.ch)... 

NCRP (1978a). National Council on Radiation Protection and Measure ments, Operational Radiation Safety Program, NCRP Report No. 59 (National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements Bethesda, Maryland). 

SC 1-5 Uncertainty in Risk Estimates SC 1-6 Basis for the Linearity Assumption SC 1-7 Information Needed to Make Radiation Protection Recommendations for Travel Beyond Low-Earth Orbit SC 9 Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Medical Use of X Rays and Gamma Rays of Energies Up to 10 MeV SC 46 Operational Radiation Safety... 

Radiation Safety Training Criteria for Industrial Radiogra-... 

This Report is one of the series developed under the auspices of Scientific Committee 46, a scientific program area committee of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) concerned with operational radiation safety. The Report provides practical recommendations on the use of personal monitors to estimate effective dose equivalent (Hg) and effective dose (E) for occupationally-exposed individuals. The Report is limited to external exposures to low-LET radiation. Recent additions to the radiation protection literature have made the recommendations possible. In order to avoid delay in utilizing the recommendations in the United States, the quantity as well as E, has been included until such time as the federal radiation protection guidance and associated implementing regulations are revised to express dose limits in E as recommended by the NCRP. 

SC 46-2 Uranium Mining and Milling—Radiation Safety Programs SC 46-3 ALARA for Occupationally Exposed Individuals in Clinical Radiology... 

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