Waste volume

Manual of Disposal ofRefiney Wastes, Volume on Atmospheric Emissions, API PubHcation 931, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., May 1975, Chapt. 11. 

An improved solvent extraction process, PUREX, utilizes an organic mixture of tributyl phosphate solvent dissolved in a hydrocarbon diluent, typically dodecane. This was used at Savannah River, Georgia, ca 1955 and Hanford, Washington, ca 1956. Waste volumes were reduced by using recoverable nitric acid as the salting agent. A hybrid REDOX/PUREX process was developed in Idaho Falls, Idaho, ca 1956 to reprocess high bum-up, fuUy enriched (97% u) uranium fuel from naval reactors. Other separations processes have been developed. The desirable features are compared in Table 1. 

Historically, ferrous sulfamate, Fe(NH2S02)2, was added to the HNO scmbbing solution in sufficient excess to ensure the destmction of nitrite ions and the resulting reduction of the Pu to the less extractable Pu . However, the sulfate ion is undesirable because sulfate complexes with the plutonium to compHcate the subsequent plutonium purification step, adds to corrosion problems, and as SO2 is an off-gas pollutant during any subsequent high temperature waste solidification operations. The associated ferric ion contributes significantly to the solidified waste volume. 

Reduction of solid-waste volume alteration of shape of solid-waste components all modem collection vehicles essentially equipped with compaction equipment... 

If one just concentrates on the radioactive material in SNF, the volume is very small, especially compared to waste from other power production practices. However, one can only discuss the separated radioactive material if it has undergone extensive reprocessing. If SNF is to be isolated, as in a place such as Yucca Mountain, with perhaps 70 miles of tunnels, the volume is that of the interior of this minor mountain. Isolation of up to 100,000 metric tons of SNF in Yucca Mountain means that for the United States, approximately all the SNF made to date and that expected in the operating lifetime of all current reactors can be put there. Approximately 2,000 metric tons of SNF are produced each year in the United States. Waste volume and placement depend on the amount of compaction and consolidation at the sites. The plans for the Yucca Mountain present a realistic and understandable picture of the volume of SNF. 

American Petroleum Institute, Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes, Volume on Liquid Wastes, 1st Ed.,. API, Div. of Refining, New York, 1969. 

At Los Alamos, we are making a concerted effort to reduce this waste volume to a minimum. In effect, we are trying to look beyond the need for permanent waste repositories by evaluating new processing and recycle concepts. 

A major consequence of the activities associated with the exploitation of mineral deposits (i.e., exploration, the development of mines and processing facilities, the extraction and concentration, which is also called beneficiation, of ores containing the desired minerals, and the decommissioning or abandonment of mine facilities) is the production of extremely large volumes of unwanted materials. Waste volumes vary from ca. 30% of the mass of the ore in the case of gypsum and other non-metals, to about 50% for base metals to more than 80% for strip-mined... 

EPA. 1986c. Test methods for evaluating solid waste. Volume IB Laboratory manual, physical/chemical methods. Washington, DC U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response. SW-846. 

The only means by which inorganic wastes can be rendered nonhazardous are dilution, isolation (as in deep-well injection), in some cases changes in oxidation state, and neutralization. Acidic wastes made up one-fifth of the injected waste volume and involved one-third of the injection wells in 1983. Most of the volume was from inorganic acids (hydrochloric, sulfuric, and nitric). Acid-base characteristics and neutralization were discussed in detail earlier, so the remainder of this section will focus on heavy metals and other hazardous inorganics (selenium and cyanide). 

The sense of crisis around e-waste arises from three considerations. The first is the sheer volume of units of obsolescent electronics - recently 400 million items per year in the USA alone, for example. Next is the fact of e-waste as a global phenomenon, present nearly everywhere there are people. Finally, there is the rate at which the e-waste volume is increasing, 5-10% yearly. China s e-waste will likely overtake the USA s by the year 2020 [3], India anticipates a growth from about 400,000 tons in 2011 to 500,000 in 2012 [4], Indeed, by the year 2030, the developing world is forecast to discard twice the number of personal computers annually as the developed world, some 600 million versus 300 million [5]. 

UNEP (2007) E-waste volume II E -waste management manual. Division of Technology, Industry and Economics, International Environmental Technology Centre, Osaka. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)... 

Fig. 4 The WEEEman, structure and composition of e-waste by Giraffe Innovation Ltd. and WEEEman.org [19] Giraffeinnovation. The WEEEman shows the composition of the lifetime e-waste volume generated by a UK citizen during his lifetime. Total volume is 3.3t, composition in %...

Although China is one of the countries with more informal recycling facilities and therefore with a high release of selected additives (Pb and DeBDE) into the environment, the results obtained are lower than the expected ones. This is due to the fact that even if the amount of additives released is high, since China is such a big country, the resulting concentration is diluted. Moreover, there could be an underestimation of the treated e-waste volume in China. 

In this case, a similar situation to the previous one of the environmental compartments occurs. The fact that the intake dose is calculated for the whole China population supposes that these intake doses are lower than the expected again. They are calculated taking into account the emissions coming mainly from the polluted spots but considering all the Chinese population as a potential receptor. However, not all the citizens are affected by these intake doses. In addition, as mentioned before the potential underestimation of the treated e-waste volume in China could be the cause of these low values. 

Therefore, after due consultation with the experts in the field and review of available C R systems, it is proposed to tackle the end-of-life FLs in two ways (1) deploy safe, fixed, and mobile lamp crushing systems to capture the mercury and reduce the waste volumes before transportation and (2) feed the crushed material and other components into a suitable recycling and recovery system to assure safe management. The review of available technologies has brought out two types of technologies that could be used in the proposed C R system ... 

C02 emissions from waste account for a large amount. Waste generation each year is 13 million tons nationwide, of which, 75% was buried mostly in the open dumps. Based on forecast data 2015-2020, municipal waste volume will be two to three times higher than at present. Statistics emissions from not handled organic waste are about 75 million tons of C02 - that will be about 113 million tons in 2020 as being forecasted. 

Land spreading, solid waste volume reduction via, 25 870, 874 Land transport, of food, 21 566 Land treatment, defined, 3 759t Land use changes, effect on stream water, 26 27-28... 

The process that transforms waste from hazardous to harmless and diminishes waste volume is... 

It should be noted that the operating parameters of the unit can be adjusted to suit the client s needs. These particular operating conditions were an attempt to maximise productivity (i.e. minimise capital cost) and minimise the waste volume. While the NaCl recovery efficiency is about 96%, the brine purity is not exceptionally good (43.4% sulphate removal). This is not considered a disadvantage, however, since the low removal efficiency can be compensated for by increasing the flow of feed that is treated by the system. If necessary, removal efficiencies of over 95 % can be obtained. 

Some processes that result in a significant increase in total waste volume ... 

Continuous daily addition of the waste volume corresponding to each R.T. or the volume established in the mixed waste studies. 

Reduction of waste volume - Volume reduction will usually reduce cost for handling, treatment, and disposal ... 

Trends in solid waste generation have changed in some important ways over the past four decades. As the table on pages 136-137 shows, the contribution to the total solid waste volume for most constituents stayed about the same between 1960 and 2000 (the last year for which data are available). The two exceptions are metals, whose share of the MSW had dropped from about 12 percent in 1960 to less than 6 percent in 2000, and plastics, which made up only 0.4 percent of all MSW in 1960 and now constitute nearly 11 percent of all such wastes. 

One disadvantage associated with the Chemfix technology is a waste volume increase. After the Chemfix process solidifies/stabilizes wastes, the volume of wastes increases, resulting in a larger volume of material requiring disposal than the original volume. Chemfix claims, however, that the normal volumetric increase has been less than 20% for approximately 95% of wastes treated. 

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